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PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

CALIFORNIA AGADEMY |

SCIENCES.

VOLUME VI.

WSS:

SAWN FRANCESCO.
1876.

wes

PROCEEDINGS

ee Peiot Oa A AA DEY
SCIENCES.

Annuat Meetine, January 4TH, 1875.
Vice-President Hewston mm the chair.

Fifty members present.

In the absence of the President, the Vice-President read the
annual address.

The Corresponding Secretary read his annual report, stating
that the correspondence is becoming more extensive and impor-
tant with the growth of the Academy.

The Recording Secretary submitted a brief report, giving the
average attendance at meetings as 31 members, and the total
resident membership as 301, and the life membership 78.

The Treasurer’s annual report places the balance on hand at
$2,958.43.

The Librarian’s report gives the number of books in the libra-
ry at 5,000 volumes, 2,500 of which are bound.

Dr. A. B. Stout, from the committee appointed to gather in-
formation sought by the French Acclimatization Society, re-
ported that certain of the questions had been answered by dif-
ferent individuals. The report was accepted, and Dr. Stout was

Proc. Cau. AcAD. Scr., Vou. VI.—1.

Dy PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

requested to forward the material to Consul Breuil, for trans-
mission to the Acclimatizing Society of France,

The reports of the Judges and Inspectors of election were re-
ceived, signed by J. H. Smythe and Henry Chapman, Judges,
and John Currey and J. D. Pierson, Inspectors. They reported
the result of the annual election, as follows:

PRESIDENT.

GEORGE DAVIDSON.

FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT. | RECORDING SECRETARY.
HENRY EDWARDS. CHAS. G. YALE.
SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT. | TREASURER.

HENRY GIBBONS, Sr. | ELISHA BROOKS.
CORRESPONDING SECRETARY. LIBRARIAN.
HENRY G. HANKS. | Wan. J. FISHER.

if
DIRECTOR OF MUSEUM.

ALBERT KELLOGG.

TRUSTEES.
DAVID D. COLTON, GEO. E. GRAY,
JOHN HEWSTON, Jz., RALPH C. HARRISON,
ROBT. E. C. STEARNS, | THOS. P. MADDEN,

WM. ASHBURNER.

Reautar Mererrine, January 187s, 1875.
Second Vice-President Henry Gibbons, Sr., in the chair.

Seventeen members present.

Donations to the Museum: The Alaska Commercial Company
donated two Aleutian mummies, a complete description of which
appeared in the S. P. Chronicle, of January 8th, 1874; Jesse

AGADEMY OF SCIENCES. 3

Walton donated specimen of Liparis pulchellus (?) or mucosus,
Ayres; Mr. B. L. Savory, of Tuolumne County, presented,
through Mr. Brooks, two specimens of pound pear, one picked
from the tree October 1st, 1873, and the other fresh.

The Vice-President stated that General Cobb had signified
his intention of depositing in the Museum of the Academy, the
articles found in the shell mound at Saucelito.

Dr. Kellogg exhibited plants, and read a paper on California
and Colorado Loco Poisons.

California and Colorado ‘‘Loco’”’? Poisons.

BY DR. A. KELLOGG.

Dr. Kellogg stated that very many thousands of horses, cattle and sheep
had been poisoned by plants, exhibited and accompanied by sketches, called
the Rattle Weed, Pompous Pea, Pop Pea, or Menzies’ milk, Vetch, (Astrag-
alus Menziesii, Gray) of the vicinity of San Francisco, and also quite wide-
spread over the State. The fact had been known to himself and to the public
for the last ten or fifteen years. How long it has been known to the native
Californian he was unable to say, but reiterated experience has taught sad
lessons to independent observers everywhere. To some, however, the cause
of their misfortune still remained a mystery. He had reason to know that
there are also other similar causes, of which more would be said hereafter.

The subject had been frequently brought before the Academy, but as no
records had hitherto been made, he thought it proper to suggest that much
useful information was often thus lost—was glad to add that no such fault
could be attributed to Mr. Yale, the present indefatigable Secretary.

This, and some allied forms, have been figured and published here; so that
the public are supposed to be somewhat familiar with it.

The plant has much the appearance of Bladder Senna. As no chemical an-
alysis has been made, nor any carefully-noted experiments tried on animals,
all we know is the serious results, often obscurely and imperfectly reported
by the farmer, ranchero or herder, and the shepherd.

Horses and cattle in this vicinity, he noticed, would shun it so long as the
pasture was good, but as it became bare, and hunger impelled, they would
eat it, and became narcotized or intoxicated, stagger, and are unsteady in all
their movements, act strangely and stupidly, losing their good ‘‘ horse sense’”’
or common brute sagacity, in short, acting like a jfool; hence the Mexican
name, ‘‘Loco,’’ given it. At length they become thinner, and cannot be re-
stored to ‘‘condition.’’ The brutes get to like the weed more and more, be-
ing apparently as infatuated as the Sandwich Islander is for his ‘‘Ava,’’ (Mac-
ropiper methysticum,) in water, which demoralizes worse than ardent spirits, or
the drunkard for his bottle. If only slightly ‘‘locoed,’’ the animal, to a great
extent, becomes unfit for uses, except the simplest kind, being unreli-

4 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

able in perilous paths or ordinary emergencies, acting so like a fool, to the
shame of all sensible animals.

What is most remarkable with this, and the Colorado Loco, is the perma-
nence of the impression, often lasting many months, or even for years, half
demented, until at length they die. Death often supervenes suddenly; the
effect is similar with horned cattle and sheep. The allied Tephrosia, or
Devil’s Shoe-string of the south, although it stupifies and intoxicates, yet the
impression soon wears off. This species of Rattle Weed is by no means con-
fined to damp ground, but thrives well on dry hills and all soils. The stem
is tall and leafy, growing in bunches from a perennial root, leaflets many-
paired (twenty or more), stipuls at base of the leaves trianguloid, membra-
naceous flowers dirty pale yellowish or whitish, tinged with red, bent forcibly
back. Pods inflated, about two inches long, and thinly membranous, indeed
so bladder-like that boys amuse themselves by popping them—hence the name
jPoOpyeeas.:

Lambert’s milk-vetch, of Colorado Territory, Oxytropis Lamberti, Pursh;
(Astragalus Lamberti, Spreng.) consists of about six to eight varieties, which,
for all popular purposes one description might suffice. The root is perennial,
stemless, or nearly so—not considering the flower or fruit-scape, as such—
they grow in tufts or stool-like suckers, springing out by very short
branches from the root-crown—are more or less silvery, satiny-silky in every
part; the common leaf-stem is about three inches long, the upper oddly pin-
nate portion the same, or whole length of leaf about six inches, or much
shorter than the flower scape stem; pea-blossomed flowers, purplish, blue and
white, violet, etc.; leaflets five to fourteen pairs, usually about eight or nine;
stipular appendages at the base of the leaves, at, or under the soil, sheathing;
pods white, satiny-silky, with very short close-pressed hairs, erect, somewhat
cylindric, one-half to an inch long, sharpening out at the point, and partly
two-celled.

Found from Saskatchewan to Texas, New Mexico, west to Rocky Mount-
ains, and Colorado to Washington Territory, and, in the opinion of Hooker,
to Arctic America and Labrador.

Of this species of ‘‘loco’’ we have no personal observation. Asst. Surgeon
P. Moffatt, U.S. A., writing from Fort Garland, Colorado Ter., says: ‘‘ Cat-
tlemen inform him that the weed abounds in damp ground; he is assured that
after eating it the animal may linger for months or years, but they invariably
die from its effects. The animal does not lose flesh apparently, but totters on
its limbs, and becomes crazy. While in this condition a cow will lose her calf
and never find it again, and will not recognize it when presented to her.
The eyesight becomes affected so that the animal has no knowledge of dis-
tances, but will make an effort to stop, or jump over a stream or an obsta-
cle while at a distance off, but will plunge into it, or walk up against it on
arriving atit. The plant pointed out to him seemed related to the Lupin.’’

The members were notified that the appointments of corres-
ponding members would be made shortly, and those desiring to
present names could do so by leaving their lists with the Sec-
retary.

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VOL. VI.

relary.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. , 5

ReautakR Meeting, Fresrvary Ist, 1875.

Second Vice-President in the Chair.

Forty-five members present.

The following new members were elected:

Cornelius Herz, Horatio Stone, J. R. Scowden, Jeremiah Clark.

Donations to the Museum: From I. C. Raymond, a valuable
case and drawers. From J. ©. Merrill & Co., the spy-glass that
originally belonged to Capt. Wm. Bligh, who commanded H. B.
M. ship Bounty when taken by the mutineers, who afterwards
settled Pitcairn Island. The glass was left at Tahiti, and came
into the hands of _ Kamehameha III of the Hawaiian Islands, and
was presented by Kamehameha V to Capt. Joseph Smith, who
left it with Messrs. J. C. Merrill & Co., who present it to the
Academy. They also donate a family Esquimaux boat or “oomiak;”
also teeth of whale. Dr. H. Behr presented the web of the larvee
of the Eucheira Socialis from New Mexico, found in about the
same climate as California. It feeds on a species of arbutus,
and could therefore be introduced if. desired. It forms a water-
‘proof sac or bag into which it retires for shelter from rain or
storms. This bag is remarkable for its exceeding delicacy and
lightness. W. G. W. Harford presented several specimens of
Crustacez from Santa Barbara, EHpicellus productus, Hippa analoga,
and two other species. W. J. Fisher presented thirty specimens
of Crustaceze from Japan, Behring’s Straits and Arctic Ocean.
Several of these species are new, and none of them are in the
cabinet of the Academy.

T. J. Lowry, of the U. 8. Coast Survey, read the following:

The Protracting Sextant—A New Instrument for Hydro-
graphic Surveying.

BY T. J. LOWRY.

Sextants, and the three-arm protractor, are indispensable instruments, in
hydrographic surveying. And in the special work of determining and plotting
the position of the sounding-boat or vessel in the usual manner by the three-
point problem, they ave the only instruments of precision in use; and yet the

CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL, Vi.

THE PROTRACTING SEXTANT. (LOWRY.)

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6 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

facts of there being three separate instruments and requiring the simultaneous
and rapid manipulations of two observers (and their subsequent efforts in
setting off the angles on the protractor) have long been felt to be defects.
And the hydrographic world has studied, but unsuccessfully, to devise an in-
strument that would do the work of these three. But this problem finds a
solution in my protracting sextant, which enables one observer to accomplish
in hydrography the desideratum of measuring at the same instant two angles,
and plotting them with the same instrument.

We have represented here in the annexed figure, ‘‘ The Protracting Sex-
tant,’’ consisting of a circle D, graduated to degrees and minutes from the
zero point around by the right and left each way to one hundred and eighty
degrees, and three radiating protractor arms, f,g andh. The arm g, is fixed
with its true edge at the zero point of graduation, and the other two, f and h,
are capable of being revolved around the hollow cylindrical axis of the circle.
Between this fixed, and each of these movable protractor arms, we have an
index arm—and each of these indices, m and n, also find in the center of the
circle a common center of motion, and carries an index-mirror mounted per-
pendicular to its plane of motion but slightly eccentrically so that the hollow
axis of the instrument can be readily gotten at. Along these index arms m
and n, are cut rectangular slots (whose longitudinal axes are radii of the cir-
cle), in which slide the projecting ends of the pivots which rivet the equal
rectangular bars, 0, s, and u, w, together. And these indices and protractor
arms are so connected by means of jointed parallelograms that the right hand
index-arm always bisects the angle included between the fixed and right
hand protractor arms, and the left hand index always bisects the angle con-
tained by the fixed and left protractor arms.

Now by a well-known optical principle we know that the angular distance
moved over by a mirror while measuring an angle is only one-half of the ac-
tual angle measured, and since each of the movable protractor arms of this
instrument is by means of this jointed parallelogramic gearing, driven along
its are simultaneously with, and twice as fast as its corresponding index-arm
(and mirror), we hence see that the angles included between the fixed and
movable protractor arms are the actual angles which the indices (and their
mirrors) have measured.

The index niirrors, y and z, may be mounted to move either in the same or
in parallel planes, as shown in the forms of the writer’s two-angle sextants
described in the proceedings of the Academy, February 16th, 1874. A horizon
glass, x, half-silvered to admit of direct and reflected vision is attached to the
frame of the instrument nearly opposite the index mirrors, with its plane
perpendicular to the plane of the instrument. The arms, f and h, are clamped
and adjusted with the ordinary clamp and tangent screws, / and k.

The requisite adjustments of the ‘‘ Protracting Sextant”’ are the same as
those of the ordinary sextant. When observing with the new Protracting
Sextant, the hydrographer holds it lightly in his right hand and movesit until
its face is in the plane passing through his eye, 7, and the three objects, A, B,
C, whose angular distances are required, and then sets and clamps his in-
dex arm so that the reflected and direct images of the objects (say left hand
and middle) of one of the angles which he is to measure, are not coincident

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 7

yet approaching on account of the progress of the boat; then with the second
index glass he makes the direct and reflected images of the middle and right
hand objects coincident, and keeps them coincident with tangent screw
until the first two objects become coincident, then clamps, and he has the two
angles observed at the same instant—and also has them set off on the proper
limbs of the instrument simultaneously with, and by the same effort that
measured the angles. And hence after measuring two connected angles with
this instrument, we have only to lay it down on the ‘‘ Field Sheet’’ (which
should always be spread on a board before the observer in the boat), and
shift it until the fiducial edges of the three protractor arms traverse the three
points (representing the signals observed upon), and the center of the in-
strument will then occupy the relative place of the observer; now dot the cen-
ter, and the position is plotted, without any of those tedious transfers of
angles from the limbs of sextants to the limbs of the protractor, which are un-
avoidably incident to the execution of practical hydrography with the forms
of sextants and protractors now in general use.

However, with the hydrographer, it is necessary to read the angles off of
the instrument and record them for future reference and closer plotting on
the ‘‘ Office Sheet.”’

The angles observed with the Protracting Sextant, or any other reflecting
instrument, are measured in the plane of the objects. If this plane be in-
clined to the horizon and a result rigorously accurate be sought, the angles
of elevation of each station above the horizon should at the same time be
observed to afford data for reducing the hypotheneusal to the horizontal
angle. But this reduction may be neglected in all cases where the difference
of elevation of the objects does not exceed two or three degrees, and when
the observed angle is larger than (the minimum angles allowed in determin-
ing a boat’s position by observations from the boat), twenty or twenty-five
degrees—for the reduction to the horizon would, in such cases, deal with
quantities more minute than the amount of error to which the measures of
all angles observed at an unstable station are liable. When the difference of
the objects is considerable, an ideal vertical line may be drawn from the
highest object downward to an elevation corresponding to that of the lower
object, and the angle measured between this vertical line and the lower object
—this with some experience and correctness of eye, will give results sufficiently
near the truth, z.e., within the limit of the errors of plotting. Objects very
close should not be observed on account of the parallax of the instrument.

The Protracting Sextant should have supplementary attachments (such as
were described by the writer before the Academy, February 16th, 1874), so
that angles between one hundred and forty and one hundred and eighty
degrees may be measured with equal facility with those of smaller magnitude.
But these larger angles cannot be plotted in the usual way, for they are too
great to be set off at the same time on the limbs of the instrument because of
the jamming of the movable protractor arms; now, under this contingency,
if we have no tracing paper, and don’t wish to sweep the circles of position,
then we may use the following easy and accurate method of plotting by
supplementary angles, viz.: Suppose A, B and C, the left, middle and right
hand objects on which are measured two angles, too large to be set off on the

8 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

limbs of the protractor at the same time, then set off the supplement of the
left hand angle on the right hand limb, and the supplement of the right hand
angle on the left hand limb; cause the right and left arms of the instrument
to traverse points A and C, respectively, and draw a line along the middle
arm, then shift the center of protractor (taking care to keep the points A and
C bisected by the true edges of right and left arms), and draw another line
along middle arm and the intersection J, of the two lines thus drawn, will be
a point on the right line through point B, and the required place of observation ;
draw this line through Band J, and with the center of the instrument on
this line, cause the fiducial edges of the right and left arms to traverse A and
C respectively; dot the center, and this is the place of observation.

Another method of plotting a position by supplementary angles is to set
off the right hand angle on the left hand limb, and the sum of the supplements
of the observed angles on the right hand limb of the protractor—cause the
left, middle and right arms to traverse the middle, right and left signals,
respectively; dot the center, and it is the required position.

And this instrument also enables the hydrographer and topographer to
determine and plot their positions by the two point problem (in a manner
equal in accuracy and second only in point of simplicity to that by the three
point problem), as shown by the writer at page 18, Vol. 2 of ‘‘ The Analyist.”’
And, in fact, with one piece of tracing paper and the Alidade, the topographer
can plot his position, by the three point problem—and with two pieces of
tracing paper and the Alidade, he can plot his position by either the two or
four point problems shown by the writer at page 146, Vol. 1, of ‘“The Analyist.”’

This instrument also furnishes the ready means of orienting the sounding bout.
If out in a bay, lake orriver, or along near the sea coast, and your compass
functions badly, and you have while angling and plotting, or for some other
reason lost your bearings, and hence wish to catch some fixed object ahead
or astern on the general direction of the line you wish to ram—then take from
the sheet, with the Protracting Sextant, the angle between some visible signal
and the general direction on which you desire to continue your line of sound-
ings, and then lifting the instrument to your eye, shift it until you bring the
image of this signal into the horizon glass, and whatever fixed object this
image then covers will be a point on the desired course. By this means, the
hydrographer, even if out on a large expanse of water, and swept about by
winds and currents, with his compass crazed by localattraction or the heaving
of the waves, may “* orient himself,’’ and thus ply the helm more intelligently.
And, in fact, by this maneuver, and by observing (and plotting as you go)
twice or thrice as many angles as must necessarily be recorded, the boat can
be steered without the aid of the compass. These practical hints will be
found to come most opportunely to the relief of the distressed hydrographer
when surveying close in shore along much of the Pacific coast, with its beaches
of ferruginous sand, or along the iron bound shores of Lake Champlain,
where the magnetic needle often becomes worse than useless.

In nothing will the skill and dexterity of the hydrographer be more
advantageously displayed than in deciding at once upon the line his boat is to
pursue, and with the glance of intuition grasping all the conceivable combin-
ations of visible points that will determine his position. But in practical

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 9

hydrography no less necessary than this skill and dexterity, is rapidity of
execution in determining positions; and, to this end, with two observers, the
requisite promptness and oneness of action are found deplorably deficient,
and that, too, at moments the most critical. A sunken rock or reef is to be
determined, and on it a sounding gotten. The rock is found, the ‘‘ cast’ is
taken—the word ‘‘ stand by for an angle ’’ is given—and at length comes the
response, r-e-a-d-y; by which time perhaps a tangent screw is jammed (hard
up) or the boat has drifted from over the rock, and thus the reward, for hours,
or it may be for days, of persistent and arduous exertions is lost. And such
mishaps must ever continue to recur where two observers are called upon to
act quickly and simultaneously under exciting circumstances.

But if in the boat there is only one observer, with a Protracting Sextant, then
we may confidently expect that promptness and oneness of action, in
observing, under every contingency, which are so essential to the rapid and
successful execution of a hydrographic survey.

Although we do not presume to say that the theory of this instrument is
so obvious, or its manipulations so simple, that ‘‘the simpleton, though he
run may understand,” or that the smatterer and blind routiner (who could
not look a quadrilateral in the face without blushing) may manipulate it with
ease and accuracy, yet we do not assert without the fear of a contradiction,
that to the eye of the ingenious geometer, its theory is most clear, and that
in the hands of the hydrographer, who isa master of his profession, this
Protracting Sextant will be tound the ready and efficient means of determining
and plotting (unassisted and alone) his position, with a facility, ease and
accuracy not now attained with two ordinary sextants and one protractor in
the hands of two observers and one plotter.

The Secretary read the following from Professor George
Davidson:

Transit of Venus.
BY GEORGE DAVIDSON.

To the California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, Cal.:—The instructions
of the Commission permit me to give general results of our work, and I con-
dense as much as possible for presentation to the Academy, our labors of
preparation and final results.

We have determined the difference of longitude by cable, between Nagasaki
and Vladivostok, whence it will be carried westward to St. Petersburg by tel-

-egraph, and in connecting the Venus Station with the Telegraph Observatory
we have determined the latitude and longitude of the French Venus Station
and two other points on the bay.

We have determined the latitude of our station by the Talcatt method; ob-
serving upon twenty pairs of stars for five nights.

We have observed fourteen occultations of stars by the moon for longitude
differences with Peking and other stations. This was work which we had to

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

discontinue on account of the smallness of the party and the continued hard
labor to be done.

Incidentally we have determined the magnetic declination, magnetic dip,
and horizontal intensity.

Of course all our work looked to only one object—the Transit of Venus.
And in order to be properly prepared for work thereon, I had erected ona
hill, 900 feet high, three miles to the north of our station, an artificial Venus
under four different phases. First, when the planet was about four-fifths or
more on the disc of the sun; this was for practice in measuring the distance
apart of the cusps by means of the double-image micrometer of the equatorial.
Then when she was 40 seconds on the disc. This was to study her appear-
ance and to measure with the micrometer the distance of the limb of the
planet on the sun’s disc. A third phase wos when Venus was 40 seconds
wholly within the sun’s limb. This was for measuring the distance apart of
the limbs of the planet and of the sun. Another phase was to study her ap-
pearance when only 10 seconds on the sun’s disc; and this was one of the
most instructive studies, as convincing one that, with instruments the size of
our equatorial, that is, 5-inch objective, it is next to impossible to observe the
contact with the eye alone, until she has entered fully five seconds. Another
practice was to measure the diameter of the artificial planet. As these phases
of Venus were drawn to appear of the same size as I should see her, the prac-
tice of measuring upon them, under all circumstances, of clear and cloudy
weather, steady and unsteady atmosphere, gave me confidence in what I
should be sure to see ina week or more.

Before the day of the transit we were ready and anxious for the event; the
weather was gathering for the worse and the prospect was decidedly bad. On
the morning of the 9th, at 4 a:m., when we observed star transits, the sky
was as clear as a bell; at 5 a. m. densely clouded. The clouds broke partially
at about half past 8 a. m., and we obtained our preparatory photographs and
had all the final adjustments made by 9:15, when the clouds thickened, and
the prospects were dark as the lower stratum of clouds touched the mountain
top four miles south of us and only 2,000 feet high. There were two strata
of clouds—the upper one, moving very slowly, was a curtain of cirrus and
cirro-stratus; the lower gathering heavily and slowly from the southwest, was
cumulo-stratus. Ten minutes before the first contact a break in the lower
stratum occurred, and near the first. Iwas sure of it, but a thicker mass
deadened the image so that I could not be sure of the contact; and when the
light increased, the planet was certainly ten seconds on the sun’s limb,
Then the clouds increased, and no measures for cusps could be undertaken
until the planet was half way on, when it became bright, and I observed the
second contact as well as such an event can be noted by eye alone. There
was no ligament joining the limbs of Venus and the sun; no black band or
black drop. There was a slight unsteadiness ot limbs, such as we see in our
regular groedetic work, but no hanging together, no distortion of outline of
either. The separation might have been much sharper, but the result conld
not raise a doubt of more than two seconds in my mind.

Then I commenced measuring with the double-image micrometer the sep-
aration of the limbs until Venus was on one diameter; then made measures

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 11

of the diameter of the planet. These were made to study the question of
irradiation. During this time there was no sign of an atmosphere or haze
around the planet. In these different measurements about 150 micrometer
readings were taken. I should here mention that Mr. Tittmann, the first as-
sistant astronomer, also observed the second contact with the Hassler 3-inch
equatorial of the Coast Survey, and noted no ligament or band.

After diameter measures came thicker clouds, but fortunately at noon they
broke away, and with the Coast Survey meridian instrument No. 2, I was en-
abled to observe the meridian transit of the sun’s first limb over nine threads,
the first limb of Venus over eight threads, the second limb of Venus over
eight threads, and the second limb of the sun over six threads. Mr. Titt-
mann with another transit measured the difference of declination of the up-
per limb of the sun and both limbs of Venus by eighteen micrometer readings.
These meridian observations and the diameter measures were not contem-
plated by the Commission.

Then the weather thickened and threatened rain; but at third contact broke
away slightly, and I was defeated in the third contact. Just a few seconds
before, I had the Jine of separation very narrow and well defined, and with-
out ligament, but the clouds deadened it, and even without colored glass it
only cleared to let me see that the planet had broken across the sun’s limb
about five seconds; thence to close, dense clouds.

During the day there was no time after 10 a. mw. when the sun shone from
a blue sky. The upper stratum of clouds acted as a screen to the sun’s heat-
rays, and the atmosphere was quite steady. Objects at a distance were dark
but clearly defined.

Of photographs we got none near first contact; only began to receive them
when the planet was half on. After that we obtained about sixty good ones.

Altogether, with the second contact, the micrometric measures, the merid-
ian transits, and the difference of declination, and the photographs, I believe
we have more than average satisfactory results. We did our best; there
was no hurry, no jar or clash or hindrance; everything worked smoothly and
like machinery, as by our practice and drill we had anticipated.

Our observed first and second contacts were about 1 min. 45 seconds after
American Almanac data, and about 3 minutes 30 seconds after the English.
The third contact was near the time of the American data.

Enough. Ina subsequent letter I will place before the Academy my opin-
ion of methods and instruments and elevations to be chosen for the transit of
1882.

Dr. Gibbons read a paper on ‘‘Climatic Changes in California.”’

W. N. Lockington read a paper on ‘‘ Sponges.”

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

The following papers by Dr. J. G. Cooper were submitted:

The Origin of Californian Land-Shells.
BY J. G. COOPER, M. D.

In previous articles I have given some observations on the Distribution and
Variations of the Californian Banded Land-shells, which naturally lead to the
consideration of their probable origin or past history.

In the ‘‘ Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zodlogy,’’ (Cambridge,
Mass., June, 1873, p. 202), Mr. W. G. Binney writes, ‘‘ the west alone is left
to us from whence to trace the Pulmonate Fauna of the Pacific region, and
there the secret of its origin lies buried under the Pacific Ocean.”

Mr. Binney probably alluded to the supposed existence of a continent
jn the South Pacific, embracing the mountain summits now forming the
archipelago of Oceania, which became submerged, as Prof. Dana suggests,
during the later tertiary period, while most of California was emerging from
the ocean.

But even if this were proved to have happened, the great distance of the
nearest islands (the Hawaiian) from us, and the great depth of the ocean
between, as well as north of them, besides the total dissimilarity of their
living land-shells from ours, forbids any supposition of a former land connec-
tion by which such animals could travel directly from one country to the other.
A glance at a globe shows that the islands, besides being tropical and wholly
south of lat. 23°, are as far from us as the Aleutian Islands, the Arctic Ocean,
or Florida, and I propose to show that whatever migration to California has
occurred, came from the direction of the regions named last.

No confirmation is given to a derivation from the west, by the more probable
former existence of an ‘‘Atlantis’’ connecting the two continents across the
Atlantic, the few island remnants of which really contain several species of
land-shells common to one or both sides.

The great similarity of our banded groups to those of Europe has always
been an argument for supposing them to have had a common origin. The
same similarity is found in many others of our animals as well as plants, and
is plainly connected with the well-known similarity of climates in the two
countries. But as the known laws of nature do not permit us to consider
climate as the cause of specific resemblances, we must look for some other
way of accounting for them in this case.

The fact that very similar species exist in Japan and the Amoor Valley,
Siberia, contradicts, indeed, the theory of climatic causes, since we know that
the climate of those regions is very similar to that of our Atlantic States,
where no similar species exist. At the same time, their existence there sug™
gests the probable central point from which all originated.

Going back in geological history to the supposed beginning of all living
species, few, if any, of the terrestrial, can be traced farther back than the

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 1)

Eocene Tertiary, and most of them much less far. But some included in the
comprehensive genus “ Helix,” are found fossil in the Eocene of Nebraska,
ete., sufficiently like living American forms to be considered the ‘‘Darwinian’’
ancestors of perhaps the whole of them! Or we may go back only to the
Miocene epoch, when trees scarcely distinguishable from the Californian
Redwood and Libocedrus flourished in Greenland and Spitzbergen, between
lat. 70° and 78-. What is more natural than to suppose that land-shells also,
like those now living among our redwoods and cedars, existed in the shade of
those trees? I have no doubt that such will yet be found fossil in the lignite
beds of the Arctic Zone.

It is easy then to see, that having their central position (if not their origin) in
points so near the present North Pole, the subsequent gradual cooling of those
regions, which is supposed to have driven the living species of Redwoods
southward to California and Japan, as well as other trees into Europe, would,
if a slow change of climate, also drive southward the land-mollusca ‘‘at a
snail’s pace’ into the same regions, where we now find their descendants
occupying countries, which are about equidistant in longitude, around the
northern hemisphere, in lats. 40°-650°.

We have strong confirmation of this theory, in the well-known distribution
of circumpolar species of land-shells southward, on both continents, along
meridians of similar temperature, and along mowntain ranges (especially those
running southward, as in America), and which are supposed to have thus
migrated south during the ‘‘ Glacial Epoch.”’

Besides these two groups, the ‘‘ circumpolar’’ and the ‘‘ representative ’’
species, we also have on the west slope a very few of the Eastern American
types. I do not, however, consider these as evidence of a migration westward,
but would explain their occurrence as proving a former existence of ancestors
common to both, in the middle regions of Oregon and Nebraska, where are
found so many tertiary remains of animals that once inhabited both regions,
before the Rocky Mountains became a barrier to migration, or caused different
climates on the two slopes.

The few fossil land-shells yet found in California are not sufficiently abundant
or ancient to furnish data for their geological history. The fresh water forms,
however, which I hope at some future time to describe and illustrate, indicate
avery different and more tropical group in the Pliocene and Miocene strata.

The occurrence of Pupa and Conulus in the carboniferous strata of Nova
Scotia, shows that land-shells existed long before the Eocene period.

The great northern glacial drift, and local glaciers farther south, have so
generally destroyed the softer tertiary deposits that it must be long before the
routes of migration can be traced from Greenland southward, but as tertiary
land plants are found there fossil, some similar deposits must have escaped
elsewhere in the intermediate regions. Species much like the living ones
of California may be expected to occur in the Pliocene of British Columbia.

There can be no doubt that the local migration has been westward along
this coast, from the facts before stated as to the occurrence of species in the
coast ranges and islands, which are unquestionably not older than Pliocene in
age, while their allies in the Sierra Nevada may have existed there since the
Eocene, but at a greater elevation than they are now found. As they move

’

14 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

westward, we also find the few older forms developing into many ‘‘specialized’’
varieties.

Going south of California we find further confirmation of the theory of
southward migration in Mexico, where species closely resembling the Pomatia
of Europe occur on the higher mountains, which, unless special creations,
could only have reached the two regions by a process like that I have described.
The genera Bulimus, Glandina and Clausilia may also have traversed a similar
route, though their absence in the tertiary strata of the Eastern States seems
to be evidence to the contrary. They may, however, be found in the tertiary
of the Great Basin, which is known to contain fossils of some other genera
now found only south of the United States (Berendtia and Holospira). Indica-
tions, however, are known, which point to a connection of tropical regions
by land in tertiary times, independent of a polar route. The supposed
‘‘Atlantis ’’ connecting South America with Africa would also have connected
it eastwardly with Asia and Oceania.

The humble and despised snails thus become among the most important
evidences of geological changes and conditions of the land, climate, etc., in
the past history of the globe. Being terrestrial and easily fossilized when of
moderate thickness, they furnish evidence not supplied by any other class of
fossils, while their persistency of types is shown by the close resemblance
of the carboniferous species to modern tropical forms. One species at least,
which still lives in the Eastern States, is found only fossil in England (in
Pliocene or later strata) like the trees found under similar conditions, and

careful examination of fossil forms on both continents will no doubt show™

other curious coincidences.

It may be mentioned also that genera of abundant occurrence in the Eastern
States have a few representatives in Europe and Asia, as they have on this
Coast.

Hyery fact like this tends to prove that their former migrations have not
been to the east or west, but from a common northern centre toward the south.

On Shelis of the West Slope of North America.
No: LL:
BY J. G. COOPER, M. D.

Genus Henrx Linn. A very thorough investigation of the subject with the
aid of all the light afforded by the works of Pfeiffer, etc., has brought me to
the conclusion that the Linnean type of Helix must be a form very different
from Pomatia, and probably including the Californian banded forms. After
excluding Planorbis, a prior genus, Pythia, and perhaps others, not agreeing
with the diagnosis, the first Linnean helicoid land-shell is H. lapicida. Al-
though this does not agree well with the diagnosis in form, it has been shown
by Morch to be of the same genus, as to the soft parts, lingual teeth, etc., as
H. arbustorum, aud probably H. Hispana, which are typical in form, and were

*See Vol. III, pp. 62, 259, 294, 331, IV, 92, 150, 171, V, 121, 172, and Amer. Jour. Conch.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 15

placed by Linnwus in about the middle of the series, H. lapicida representing
indeed their carinated condition. Furthermore, Pfeiffer only quotes Edition
XII, for ‘‘H. Pomatia,’’ while the genus Helix was founded in the Systema
Nature, Ed. X.

Other species have been subsequently adopted by authors as the type,
but the laws of nomenclature seem to require that the first-named, or most
typical and well-known species of the author, should be considered his generic
type. 4H. lapicida occurs in Sweden, but none of those adopted by southern
authors do so. Each of the latter seems to have taken a form used as food
or medicinally, but less known to Linneus. Until Hanley identified the
Linnean types of species, two of them were even supposed to have been
unknown to him! We may therefore give:

1. HA. lapicida (or H. arbustorum) as type of Linn. ,

2. H. grisea L. (=‘‘aspersa Miill.’’ Hanley) as type of Risso.

3. H. PematiaL. (Syst. Nat. Ed. XIT) as type of Fitzinger.

4. H. lucoruml. (=‘‘lactea Mill.”’ Hanley) as type of Swainson.

Thus it becomes necessary to consider H. lapicida the Linnean type, and
Arionta arbustorum as subgeneric, though Mérch has placed them in the contrary
positions. As to H. Hispana there seems to be some doubt, as it was not
recognized by Hanley among the types, and the description is not full enough.
Tf, however, it is the H. umbilicaris Brum., it is the type of Campylea Beck,
which probably includes part of the Californian species, formerly placed by
me in Lysinoe (Aglaia part, auct.). It,comes nearly between ‘‘H. fidelis ”’
and “‘ H. Dupetithouarsi.”” C. setipila Ziegl. is placed next to H. Mormonum
by Pfeiffer, and retains its bristles permanently, dike var. Hillebrandi. Besides
the 1-banded or fillet-banded series like ours, there is another in Europe with
3 or 4 bands, which seems a passage to the § Pentatenie to which Pomatia,
etc., belong. Compare also ‘‘ H. peliomphalia’’ Pf. and H. Simode Jay, of
Japan, H. Middendorjii Gerst. Amoor R., H. jaspidea Pf. and H. Patasensis
Pf., Andes, Peru. Species are included in Campylea that are subangled,
(e. g. C. Banuatica Partsch, and cingulella Ziegl.) thus approaching lapicida,
which is said by Mérch sometimes to ‘have four bands like its allies,’’ but
he may confound two species in this case. One, C. Raspailli Payr. is
imperforate.*

*I am indebted to Dr. Newcomb for the use of numerous Conchological books.

Theshell figured by Chenu (Manuel, I, p. 461) as ‘‘Macrocyclis (Vallonia) pulchella Miill.,”
is a species of Campylea much like Mispana (umbilicaris) or cornea. The error probably
arose from the confusion by some authors of Corneola (type pulcheila) with Campylea
(corned) .

“ Helix peregrina (Bosc) quoted by Bland & Binney (Pulmonata Geophila, 186), from ‘‘the
islands on the west coast of America,’ is probably Gmelin’s species of same name, which
Pfeiffer has shown to be probably the same as the ‘‘H. octona’’ Chemn. (not of Lam.),
Stenogyra octona of B. & B. p. 282, quoted by Pfeiffer as from West Indies, Guatemala,
West Columbia, Pacific Is. (Opara, etc.) Chemnitz no doubt mistook it for the Linnean
H. octona. and Gmelin rectified this by calling it peregrina, which name probably belongs to
the West Indian shell, not in Mex. or Cal. In Pfeiffer’s synonymy is also Achat. Panamensis
Muhlf. Mss., not Bulimus Panamensis Brod., but Dr. Newcomb tells me the Panama animal
differs from the West Indian, and also considers those of the Pacific Islands distinct.

16 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

The name Lysinoe proves also inapplicable to our species, being only a sub-
stitute for Aglaia, of which the type, H. Axdouinii, is quite different. The
Mexican species, Ghiesbreghti, adopted as typical, has been made a type of the
new subgenus Odontura, Crosse & Fischer.

On the whole, the most scientific plan seems to be to consider the West
Coast banded forms as belonging to subgenera of Helix, and to include them
under that name. There are about ten species on this slope, however, which
seem to differ enough in the shells alone to be separated generically, besides
Patula, Macrocyclis, Hyalina, ete., which differ both in shell and soft parts.

Subgenus ARIONTA.

H.ramentosa Gld. = reticulata Pf. Dr. Newcomb informs me that the
types sent by him to both these authors were from Mission Peak, 25 m. 8. E. of
Oakland, Cal. The former name has several months’ precedence in description,
the latter being merely a variety of it, and both are probably varieties of
Californiensis, with which they are connected by the subglobular form figured
as H. Bridgesii by Binney & Bland (Pulm. Geoph. 169, f. 294). A very small
Oakland specimen is 0.85 by 0.60 inch. Another exactly resembles the
Monterey var. in form (vincta).

Among the collections of the Geol. Survey of Cal. in 1860, were some
Helices, encrusted with lime from a tufa-spring, nearly 14 inch thick, and
supposed to be fossils. I softened the crust in dilute acid, and scaled it off
from a perfect specimen of this species, retaining epidermis, band, etc.,
others being more or less kleached. The locality was ‘‘ Sergeant’s Ranch,”’
about 25 m. N. E. of Monterey (where it is replaced by the vars. vincta and
nemorivaga).

The form of H. arbustorum from Switzerland, called H. Repellini Charp.,
seems to represent this var. in Europe.

Compare ‘‘ H. lutacea’’ Pf. Noy. Conch. I. 120, pl. 34 f. 1 (bandless var.?).

H. arrosa var. Holderiana. Specimens found on the east side of San
Francisco Bay, along the first range of hills opposite the Golden Gate, for 15
miles N. and §., have the color and seven whorls of typical arrosa, but in
form and sculpture approach ramentosa, being examples of the law of inferior
development in a warmer climate, retaining characters of the young of the
type. They measure 1.05 to 1.28 by 0.60 to 0.75 inch. The first specimen,
found several years since by Mr. W. W. Holder, was considered a variety of
exarata, being imperfect and faded. Dr. Newcomb identifies it as his ‘‘ var.
of ramentosa with seven whorls,’’ mentioned in Amer. Jour. Conch., but I
cannot yet see cause for uniting a7rosa with that series. Iam, however, less
certain about evarata and arrosa being distinct, having found specimens exactly
intermediate in the Coast Range 25 m.S. of San Francisco. They do not,
however, appear to mix at Santa Cruz, where both occur, with varieties of
Californiensis. The animal of exarata differs also in being reddish, not
smoky-gray, more slender, with longer tentacles, foot narrower, more pointed
behind.

H. arvosa var. Stiversiana. A specimen obtained from Dr. Stivers, col-
lected in Marin or Sonoma Co., has but 64% whorls, and dimensions agreeing
with Lea’s figure of ‘‘ Nickliniana,”’ viz.: 1.05 by 0.70. It has, however, numerous

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. LG

impressed grooves on the body whorl, parallel to the suture, asin Townsendiana,
fidelis, etc. Others from Point Reyes, Marin Co., are similar, with only
6 whorls. This is possibly Lea’s original ‘‘ Nickliniana,’’ which was ‘‘longi-
tudinally strite,’’ but the striz are not mentioned by later describers, and the
‘*5 whorls, whitish, mottled, paler beneath, size 90 by 70, locality San Diego,’’
of Lea, cannot be made to apply to it.

Mr. Carlton received specimens from Sonoma Co. (Healdsburg?) with the
same revolving grooves, but more like var. Holderiana.

The animal of arrosa is smoky-gray, about twice as long as the width of
shell, coarsely granulated, the tips of granulations paler; eye-pedicles % of
total length. Foot very broadly expanded, nearly three times the width of
body, its margins flattened above.

One from east of San Leandro is a typical small arrosa.

H.tudiculata Binn. This species approaches the coast farther north
than before reported, being found in considerable numbers in the bottom land
of Santa Clara River, six miles east of San Buenaventura, where it lives in
colonies near a colony of H. Traskii, but without any intermingling of the
two species. I found one which had been injured when half-grown, and after-
wards formed another whorl without a band, showing that this variety is the
result of disease.

They grow only half their greatest size there, it being rather too dry a
climate, but the first locality south of Monterey in which a valley runs direct
to the ocean from the Sierra Nevada, where they are more perfect. Two
species of Succinea seem to have followed the same outlet to near the coast.
(See notes hereafter.)

These shells come very near ‘‘ Nickliniana’’ Lea. A tracing of his figure
laid over Binney & Bland’s fig. 287 (var. ‘‘cypreophila’’), agrees almost
exactly, but Lea’s description appears mixed with a var. of Californiensis
(and of Kellettii ?).

H. Kellettii Fbs. and vars. In the descriptions of vars. Tryoni and
crebristriata (Proc. Cal. Acad. III, 116), forms are mentioned as sometimes
larger, angled, or with lips enormously thickened and connected by a thick
callous deposit on the parietal wall. I found these on the islands to which
the two varieties mentioned are now confined, the fossils of the two being
undistinguishable, except that those of var. crebristriata have the tubercle of
var. Tryoni even more developed than in the living form of the latter (which
does not now exist on the same island), while those of var. Tryoni have the
‘ deep striz of crebristriata well developed.

These were among the proofs on which I considered ‘‘ H. Tryoni’’ a var.
of Kellettii in a former article.

In the Journ. de Conchyl. for 1861, Pl. VIII, f. 12-16, are represented
fossils from Algeria bearing similar relations to species now living there.
Crosse also notices their similarity to the living H. dentiens of the West Indies
(belonging to the subgenus Dentellaria, apparently not very different in animal
from Helix § Arionta). This, together with other Algerian species, both recent

Proc. Cau. AcaD. Sci., Vou. VI.—2.

18 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

and fossil, closely resembling West Indian forms, as well as some of the
Canary and Azores Islands, he considers good evidence of the exist-
ence of the connecting land ‘‘Atlantis’’ within tertiary periods at least.
The cireum-tropical existence of this northern group is, however, to be ex-
plained in another way by a southward migration, as I have more fully shown
in another paper. The repetition of forms with very thick lips, in different
longitudes, on islands between latitudes 35° and 30°, is rather the conse-
quence of the excessive development of shell in mild foggy climates, on
islands, especially, where lime abounds. The animals may differ very much,
as shown by those with similar shells, from New Caledonia described by
Crosse & Fischer. The Algerian fossils no doubt lived when the Sahara was
an inland sea, and Algeria a group of islands, the later rise being possibly at
the time ‘‘Atlantis ’’ sunk.

Our fossil island varieties also show the effects of a former moister and
warmer climate, perhaps pliocene.

As might be expected, the Algerian shells belong to a different subgenus,
forming a gradual series from the toothless Tachea lactea, Mull. (‘‘=lucorum
L.,”’ Hanl.) to one and four-toothed Dentellarian forms, and some of, the fos-
sils retain the characteristic five bands of the § Pentatenie.

Our island Helices also connect with the Lower Californian many-banded
areolata, etc., which much resemble lactea, etc., but according to Morch,
Tachea is a subgenus of the carinated genus [berus (type Gualteriana L.)

As partial evidence of the greater antiquity of our fossil forms, we may note
that numerous eastern species found fossil in the Mississippi valley Quater-
uary strata, do not differ from those now inhabiting the surrounding regions.
In that case, therefore, there may have been no great change of climate.

The angled form of Kellettii, found fossil, is the link connecting our ‘‘Ar-
ionta-form’’ species with the ‘‘ Chilotrema-form”’ lapicida, and with the
angled forms of the next group.

Subgenus CAMPYLAA. (?)

H. Mormonum Pe. In their splendid work on the Land Mollusca of
Mexico, and also in the Journ. de Conchyl. XXI, 1873, 263, Messrs. Crosse &
Fischer give as a locality, ‘‘Sonora, Mex., Dr. Frick.”” This is undoubtedly
amistake arising from specimens collected by him at Sonora, Tuolumne
County, Cal., where he informed me himself that he found it common, as
well as at Columbia, near the same place, localities noted for the marble and
lime mentioned by me in other articles. Lest other foreign authors may -
suppose this shell to be from Utah, I may state that the original locality,
‘‘ Mormon Island,” is a rocky islet in the American River, Cal., 70m. N. N.
W. of the town of Sonora, and on the same Limestone belt.*

The animal of H. Mormonum, (Pioneer Cave, El Dorado Co., J. G. C.), is
long and slender, semi-cylindrical, foot not projecting much behind, flattened,

*In the same works the anthors repeat the error of locality for H. Pandore, viz: ‘‘ Santa
Barbara, Cal.,” though it has been several times exposed. They also redescribe Nassa fos-
sata, Gld.. as ‘NV. Morleti, Crosse, Habitat unknown.” J. de C., 1868, 169, Pl. VI, f. 3.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 19

wedge-shaped. Color dark brown, tentacles darker. Surface thickly studded
with paler tubercles very regularly arranged in front, less so behind the shell.
A deep furrow at upper edge of foot, which spreads to twice the width of
the body, forming a sharp edge all around. Head obtusely rounded, tentacles
long and slender.

It resembles that of H. Traskii most nearly, differing much from the others
nearest allied in their shells.

A remarkably flat variety of H. fidelis, found by Mr. Harford at Dalles,
Oregon, is so much like forms of this species as to suggest that they are of a
common origin. If the animal proves to be intermediate in colors, it will
show that they are only varieties of one species, but so far as known, the
animals are more distinct than usual in shells no nearly allied.

H. Traskii Newe. Specimens from near San Buenaventura, where it
abounds in moist bottom lands, have the young shell bristly up to the growth
of four whorls, but the adult shows no trace of this. The animal has the
form of that of var. Diabloensis (figured in Proc. Phil. Acad. 1872), but differs
in paler purplish (not slaty) tint, and tubercles tipped with white, probably
only a more southern variation. The young shell is also distinctly subangled,
though not always to the same degree, some being far flatter above than others.
Out of over fifty adult shells, one measures 1.30 by 0.60 inch, looking like a
pale H. fidelis, with but 644 whorls. I found them to bein the habit of
climbing small willow trees in a swamp up to a height of 12 feet.

Dr. Yates has found var. Diabloensis in Colusa Co., 100 miles north of Mt.
Diablo, near Cache Creek, the outlet of Clear Lake, inhabiting only the
eastern ridges of the coast ranges as farther south. Also near Calistoga, Napa
County. The supposed hybrid mentioned by me in these Proceedings, III,
331, is the type of this form.

H. fidelis var. infumata Gld. In a former article, I have stated that
specimens from Humboldt Bay are intermediate between the northern and
southern shells; also suggesting that the latter might sometimes show the
normal bands of the group. I have verified this suggestion by finding a
young faded specimen two miles east of Oakland, in which the darker band
is quite distinct just above the angle, on several upper whorls, the light
marginal ‘‘ fillets ’’ also showing above and below it. This specimen is also
roughly ribbed and clouded above, exactly as in H. lapicida for which it might
be taken if found in Europe.

Tt will be observed from the description of the colors of the animal here
given, that they resemble those of /fidelis. All the species analogous to
** Campylea’’ differ much more in animals, as well as in shells, than the
** Arionta’’ group. This is connected with their extensive range in latitude,
while the latter are limited to more constricted circles, as shown in the article
on the ‘‘ Law of Variation.”

The animal is black, with brick-red tubercles, conspicuous even to the end
of the tentacles, the furrows of the back not quite symmetrical, except one
on each side of the median dorsal line. Mantle edge smoky gray. Length
twice the diameter of shell; height of body half the breadth of foot. Form
and tentacles more slender than in the polished species; tail sharper. The

20 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

slender elongated form is always connected with many whorled species, having
a rather narrow aperture in the shell.

Specimens from Alameda Canon, about lat. 37° 30’, its most southern known
range, have the scaly epidermis as much developed below as above. As in
bristly species this roughening seems to aid in concealing the shell by retaining
a coating of mud.

Mr. G. W. Dunn has found many of this species on the branches of Buckeye
trees (sculus) near Baulines Bay, showing another resemblance to its ally
H. fidelis.

Dr. Yates has found it near Calistoga, Napa Co.

I have also found banded young of all ages under the loose bark, up to
20 feet above the root of a dead tree, at Haywards.

Glyptostoma Newberryana W.G.Binn. In the Amer. Jour, of
Conch. V, 190, Bland & Binney call this a ‘‘ true Helix,’’ but from their de-
scription of jaw and teeth merely prove that it is neither a Macrocyclis nor a
Zonites. Since then they have made it the type of a subgenus Glyptostoma,
from the grooves in aperture, According to the Agassizian rule, the external
form of the shell is enough to separate it from the same sub-family with any
type of Helix. The animal differs materially also as follows:

‘Length 14% times the width of shell, spiracle just above middle of its back
when creeping, only 4 inch from angle of aperture. Granulations very long
and coarse, reticulately furrowed between, and one straight furrow running
obliquely down from spiracle toward mouth on right side of body, about five
furrows above, and five below it. A distinct furrow around flattened margin
of foot, with branches connecting it with another close to edge. Tail flattened
and obtusely wedge-shaped without mucous gland. Hye-pedicles nearly one-
third of length of body, and like lower tentacles, finely granulated. Foot
narrower than height of body. Color smoky gray, foot paler beneath, edge
of mantle yellowish.

The form of the animal is indeed almost the same as in our species of
Macrocyclis (and this of course is connected with the similar form of the
shell), but the external characters otherwise differ as well as the jaw and
teeth.

Genus Mersopon Raf. Rafinesque’s ‘‘General Account, etce.,’’ 1818,
mentions as found in Kentucky, of ‘‘Helix four species,’’ while his descrip-
tions of Mesomphix, etc., distinctly state that he considered the typical
Helix imperforate, no doubt adopting the type of his friend Risso (and
of Leach?), viz.: aspersa (=‘‘grisea L.’’ teste Hanl.) Taking W. G.
Binney’s list of species of the ‘‘ Interior region,’’ it is easy to identify the
four nearest to that type, viz.: albolabris, multilineata, Pennsylvanica, Mitchel-
liana. His ‘‘ twelve species of Mesomphix’’ include some of Macrocyclis,
Zonites (and Patula?); his ‘‘ Trophodon, ten species,’’ must include the
‘*Odotropis’’ of next year. Both are from the same Greek words, meaning
“toothed whorl.’’ From his later ‘‘ Enumeration, etc.,’’ 1831, it appears
that he divided T’rophodon into three groups, giving the name ‘‘ Mesodon,
1819,”’ to the first, though it is known only as a catalogue name, the M. leu-
codon of that date. The description “Differs from Helix by lower lip

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 21

with atooth. ©. maculatum. Depressed, five spires, hardly striated, upper
lip reflexed, tooth careniform. Fulvous with brown spots,’’ agrees best with
multilineata, for he does not state that it has a tooth ‘‘on the spire,’’ as in
Odotropis, but a ‘‘ careniform ”’ ridge on the lower (not ‘‘inner’’) lip. Thus
Mr. Tryon’s statement that he figured albolabris as type in Mss. is intelligible,
showing that the tooth referred to was not on the parietal wall as usually
understood.* We must then suppose that he made the genus to include the
species he before placed in Heltx.

It appears most proper, if we adopt any of Rafinesque’s names, to use
those published before 1825 in preference to later ones, invented after his
mind became affected. His earlier writings are as clear as those of most
naturalists of his time, and from his allusion in some places to unjust sup-
pression of his descriptions in Europe, we may suppose he would have done
better after 1825 but for his unhappy condition. On this account the name
Odotropis having an excellent description given with it would be far preferable,
if he had not unfortunately,omitted to mention a type species. As it is, it
can only be used for a section, as done by me in 1868.

As to the distinctness of this genus from Helix as defined before, there can
be no doubt, and it is still more different from the Pomatia group. The large,
typical species all differ definably in shell, jaw and lingual teeth, as well as in
the form of the animal, which has the foot less expanded. The nearest
approach to Helix, in shell, is seen in 0. multilineata and O. profunda, but
their bands and jaws are quite different. As subgenera it includes Aplodon
Raf., Polygyra Say?,t Stenostoma Raf., Triodopsis Raf., Dcedalocheila Beck.

Mesodon Raf. only differs from Odotropis in absence of a parietal tooth and
of umbilicus, and Ulostoma is synonymous with Mesodon, having a tubercle
on the lower lip. Trophodon Raf. is doubtfully distinct, connecting Odotropis
and Triodopsis, while Xolotrema includes only the imperforate species of the
last, connecting it with Stenostoma. é

The lip and teeth alone furnish only subgeneric characters, and the umbilicus
is scarcely of specific value. While some of the above divisions approach
nearer to Helia in internal characters, their shells are still more different.

M. Townsendiana var. ptychophora A. D. Brown, Journ. de Conchyl.
1870, p. 392. =H. pedestris Gld. (part, animal excl. smooth var.) 1846.

= H. Townsendiana var. Bland & Cooper, Ann. N.Y. Lye. VII, 362, and var.
minor Tryon, Mon. Terr. Moll. of U. 5.

Hab. Montana and Nebraska, Rocky Mts.

It seems yet unsettled whether this species belongs to Arionta or Mesodon,
and I have been unable to obtain living specimens for comparison. Mr.

*Mesodon Raf. (1819?) 1831, type H. thyroidus Say, teste Ferussac (from specimens ?),
albolabri steste Tryon from Raf. Mss. ‘‘ Type elevata Say,” teste Gray, but this was probably
a type of Trophodon 1818, which differed in the ‘‘ upper lip notched.” Gray, however, fol-
lowed the strictrule of adopting the first recognizable species named in Ferussac’s catalogue’

= Odomphium Raf, 1831 (umbilicate group of Mesodon).

Raf.’s Mss. figure of ‘‘ M. leucodon thyroide”’ is certainly thyroidus, but called ‘‘ spotted,”
and the trinomial term used indicates that it was not his original type.

7This name though anterior, is inapplicable to all the species.

22, PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Binney’s latest work states that its lingual dentition differs from the other
known Arionte, approaching the last-named genus.

M.anachoreta W. G. Binn. Compare *‘ H. lesa Rve.’’ Conch. Icon.
Helix, Pl. CCX, described as ‘‘ granulated, Hab. unknown.”’

Subgenus Apntopon Raf. ‘‘ Differs from the genus Helix by its rounded
mouth, one-toothed columella, and umbilicus. One specimen in Kentucky,
remarkable, A. nodosum. Three whorls of spire embossed, and lightly
wrinkled concentrically beneath ’’ (Journ. de Physique, 1819). The rounded
mouth also distinguishes it from Stenostoma* and there seems to be no species
in Kentucky to which it can apply, except a variety of monodon, common in
the west, retaining the embossing lett by the bristles of the young (Helix Leati
Ward). That species forms a link between the subgenus Stenostoma and the
more different group of Odotropis , to which I applied it in 1868.

Our two species are so closely connected as to be hard to separate, and one,
the germanda, has often, if not always, the internal tubercle characterizing
most of the subgenus Stenostoma. They agree with O. monodon in fewer ribs
on the jaw than in the type forms.

Mesodon (Aplodon) Columbiana Lea. The uncertainty of the
difference in the jaws of this species compared to that of germana (as described
and figured by Bland & Binney in Ann. N. Y. Lyc. N. H. X, p. 304, pl. xiv,
f. 2 and 4) is shown by jaws extracted by myself from shells that would prob-
ably be all considered Columbiana by those authors.

1. A Sitka jaw is strongly arched, with eight broad ribs.

2. §S. F. specimens have nine or ten ribs, stronger, but narrower.

3. A Santa Cruz specimen (toothed and imperforate) has them similar,
thus exactly filling the gap between B. & B.’s jaw of Columbiana with eight
narrow ribs, and that of germana with eleven broader ones. The proportions
they give for the soft internal organs are very unreliable, as aleohol produces
very different forms in those of the same species, and they even differ
in individuals with season and age (see Prophysaon). I am, therefore,
compelled to consider germana as only a variety of Columbiana. This species
has been found near Calistoga, Napa Co., by Dr. Yates, with Vancouverensis,
infumata and Diabloensis, associated at no other locality.

M. (Dedalochila) Harfordiana Cp.t
I have heard of what was probably this species in the mountains east of

*This name, used in 1818 and 1831, was evidently intended to include Stenotrema described
in 1819, that name having been pre-occupied in 1815, and being as applicable to ‘‘ narrow
umbilicus”’ as ‘‘narrow mouth.” Raf.’s type convexwm is prior to Ferussac’s name, and
his manuscript was probably altered in Europe before printing.

+ Genus Gonosroma Held. This European form, type obvoluta, is connected with my
Ammonitella Yatesti, by the ‘* Drepanostoma nautiliformis’”’ Porro, of Italy, but the three
species are different enough, apparently, to form three subgenera. ‘‘ H. ammonitoides Rve.”’
of Australia, is still more like mine in the form of the mouth, but highly colored. The
animals of all need thorough comparison, and also with similar concave shells from the
Pacific islands. Those who unite mine to Helix should call it ‘‘ H. ammonttella Cp.,”’ there
being a H. Yatesii Pfeiff. 1855.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 23

San Diego. Mr. Hemphill also informs me that he collected it in Idaho, thus
approaching the range of allied polygyrella.

Genus Patuna Held. Type ‘‘ H. radiata Penn.”’ (or ‘ H., alternata Say.,”’
teste Gray, Genera. )

This genus was founded on one of the group of ‘‘ Anguispira’’ Morse, a name
used by me in the ‘‘West Coast Helicoid Land-Shells,’’ but according to Bland
& Binney includes also P. Hornii’’ Gabb, and striatella Anth., with var.
Cronkhitei Newc., though not the others I included in it.

P. solitaria Say. Compare ‘‘ Helix Kochi’’ Pf. Monog. I, figured by
Reeve, Icon. Pfeiffer places them close together, but the habitat was unknown.
If the collector was the Dr. Koch of ‘‘Sea Serpent’? fame, he no doubt
collected it in Osage Valley, Western Missouri, where he exhumed Mastodon
bones. The figure looks like one of the varieties of solitaria.

Patula pauper Moric. (not Gould) Alaska. ‘‘Helix ruderata’’ Stearns,
Proc. Cal. Acad. III, 384 (mot of Studer). ‘* Patula ruderata ?’’ Cooper,
Amer. Journ. Conch, V, 202.

Genus Macrocycuts. The animal of the tropical type of this genus seems
to need comparison with the northern forms. By strict rules, the name
Mesomphix belongs to this group, the type being plainly concava, as shown
by Ferussac.

Me? “Helix” Beicheri Pfeiff. 1, Reeve, Icon. Compare this with
the Alaskan form called ‘‘ Vancouverensis,’? but which seems different. The
locality of Belcher’s specimen was unknown, but he visited that coast.

M. Voyana Newe. Found rarely in Alameda County, by Dr. Yates and
H. Hemphill, common and large near §. Diego. The animals show the fol-
lowing differences:

1. Alameda Co. Dusky white, back purplish-brown, a distinct dark stripe
on each side, running back from base of eye-peduncles, which are whitish-
brown.

2. San Diego. Yellowish-white, middle of back, stripes and tentacles all
pale slaty.

3. San Francisco specimens (called ‘‘ Vancouverensis’’) are darker yellow
than the last, with no central or dark stripe. They thus agree closely with
the description of the animal of A. concava by Dr. Binney, but differ much
from that of Oregon Vancouverensis as described by him and by Dr. Newcomb,
in Amer. Journ. of Conch. Vol. I.

The animals of Alaska specimens, with a greener shell, are paler than all
the others.

M. Durantii Newe. = Patula Durantii of former papers. According to
Bland & Binney this little species shows the same disregard for generic
uniformity of size seen in Patula, Zonites, Hyalina, etc., and makes the terminal
member of the series ou this coast represented by three or four species, regu-
larly diminishing in size.

I have lately found it in one spot (on limestone only), two miles from
Oakland, so that its name, from the late President of the University of Cali-
fornia, is more appropriate than when given (see these Proceedings, ITI,

24 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

118). It was also found several years ago by Mr. Rowell, at Haywards, also
in Alameda Co. I have not found it there, where, however, occur the following
mollusea: HeliaCaliforniensis, typical, H. (var.) infumata, Triodopsis loricata,
Mace. concava, and all the species without shells common to California.

Punctum pygmeum Drap. This most minnte of our species has
lately been found, also, near Haywards, by Dr. Yates.

Suecinea lineata W. G. Binn. The specimens from Mojave River
mentioned by me in Vol. IV, p. 151 as probably S. rusticana Gld., are more
likely to be lineata, as I found this west of the first locality along Santa
Clara River, down to within 8 m. of San Buenaventura. The animal is
yellowish-white, paler beneath, eye-tentacles dark, with a dark line running
back in the animal’s head from each. Shell honey-yellow, thick enough to
hide the colors of animals.

S. Sillimani Bland. The Mojave R. specimens mentioned with the
above as S. NVuttalliana Lea, are probably the present species for the reason
just mentioned, this having been found by me in the same swampy thickets.
The animal is quite different from that of the last, being lead-color, paler
beneath, but showing also the dark lines in and behind tentacles. The shell
is greenish, and so thin that the viscera show through it, but is nearly always
so encrusted with mud as to partially conceal it. I have noticed the same
habit in S. Stretchiana, the mud being evidently plastered on in ridge-like
layers by the animal itself.

Hyalina arborea Say. Not rare with the Succineas, the only place
where I have found it near the level of the sea in Southern California. Con-
stant moisture and summer fogs, are found in few other locations southward.

Genus Propuysaon Bland & Binney, 1873, type ‘‘P. Hemphilli’’ B. & B.,
Ann. N. Y. Lye. X, 293-297, Pl. XIII.

The authors remark that they had only compared alcoholic specimens with
my description and figure of ‘‘ Arion Andersonii’’ (Proc. Phil. Acad. 1872,
148, pl. III, f. F). I have compared their description and figure with alcoholic
specimens of my species, and find that the differences mentioned by them
are caused chiefly by the contraction by the alcohol. The distinct locomotive
disk, minute caudal pore, and position of generative orifice, all become changed
as described bythem. The jaw figured by them differs only in being immature,
and in some of the ridges being consolidated, thus showing eight single and
six double ones, making twenty, as given by me.

This difference, with other possible distinctions in color in fresh specimens,
may be sufficient to separate their species by the name of P. Hemphilli. Mine
is, however, of the same genus, and though I had before suggested a name
for it in Mss., I am willing to adopt Prophysaon Andersonii. It is not unlikely
that the Oregon animal may be the ‘‘Avion foliolatus’’ Gld., still imperfectly
known. My species is common in winter along the large creeks east of San
Francisco Bay.

Ariolimae-Californicws Cp. In the dry season these animals
crawl down into deep fissures made by the sun in some soils, or hide on the
northern exposure of catons on streams, in cellars, etc., where some can be

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 25

found all summer within ten to twenty miles of the coast. Ata place near
Oakland where the kitchen-refuse of part of the town is dumped, near a
swampy spot, they come out in hundreds to feed on the rotten vegetables,
etc., emerging about 4 p.m. up to June, when fogs prevailed, but not until
sunset in August. A few L. campestris inhabit the same spot, but remain in
the wet grass only.

A. niger Cp. This, described with P. Andersonii, I have since found
once near Cypress Point, Monterey, as well as in several places within the
range given before. Near Oakland it does not appear until the ground is well
soaked with rain, about November, and deposits its eggs in December to
February. It does not occur in gardens, but in uncultivated oak-groves on
clay lands.

“A. Hemphilli W. G. Binn., lately described from Niles Station,
Alameda Co., seems externally only like a pale var. of A. niger.

Limax (Amalia) Hewstoni Cp. In our Proceedings IV, p. 151,
1871, I referred to this as ‘‘another new species of Limacide,’’ being uncer-
tain whether it might not be imported, as I found it only in San Francisco.
It certainly agrees nearly with the too brief description of L. Sandwichensis
as well as the figure, in Voyage of the Bonite, II, p. 497, Pl. 28, f. 8, but
comparison of living specimens will be necessary. Mr. Binney in Ann. N. Y,
Lye. XI, 22, states that specimens of an Amalia were sent to him by Mr.
Hemphill from Los Angeles, and though differing in its dentition, thinks it
indicates that the genus is native to California. I am more inclined to think
some species has also been introduced there with orange trees, grape vines, or
otherwise.

My reason is, that I have searched carefully for these animals in Southern
California since 1871, and found only Limax campestris, which is common
near San Buenaventura, and occurs south to San Juan Capistrano, while I
found none in the mountains or valleys near San Diego, and no other one at
Los Angeles. ;

This species has apparently succeeded in establishing itself in spots on the
east side of 8. F. Bay, where the climate is much drier than in the city. I
have found it only in one very damp garden in Oakland, and in some 12 miles
east of there, while outside of cultivated gardens, even where always moist,
it does not occur.

Alexia (myosotis var.?) setifer Cp. Since my first notice of this
species, it has been nearly exterminated in Mission Creek, by street cross-
ings and obstructing the tidal flow, so that I have lately found it only in
one spot near the mouth. It may, however, remain more scattered in
Mission Bay, though so exceedingly tender that it has died in every other
locality where I have tried to colonize it. The name givenin Vol. V, p. 172,
as ‘‘ Melampus ciliatus’’ should be Auricula ciliata Moricand.

Ancylus crassus Hald? A specimen received from Humboldt River,
Nev., by Dr. Yates, appears to be a thin variety of this, approaching
‘‘ A, Kootaniensis’’ Baird, and thus counecting the latter with former, as I
doubtfully placed them in these Proceedings, IV, 101, 1870.

26 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

On p. 174 of same volume, I referred specimens from Spokan River to
A. patelloides Lea, by mistake for A. crassus.

Gundlachia Californica Rowell. Two specimens found by me in
a little sandy rivulet at Baulines Bay, appeared to be merely the common
Ancylus fragilis, but some months after, in taking out the animal, I found
that one had a ‘‘deck’’ covering nearly its whole aperture, exactly as in the
*‘voung of (7. Stimpsoniana’’ figured by S. Smith in the Ann. N. Y. Lyc. May,
1870. The other, though exactly similar above, is an Ancylus below! That
from Merced Falls, mentioned in our Vol. IV, p. 154, differs in being much
smaller and paler, as were the Ancyli found with it. Mr. Smith states that
the animal of his was exactly like that of Ancylus fuscus, and Dr. Stimpson
described the dentition as similar also, to that of A. rivularis. These facts
seem to show that the forms called Gundlachia are only modifications of
Ancyli, analogous to the thickening of lip observed in Physas that survive a
winter or a dry season. Some individuals, better nourished than others,
secrete so much shell as to nearly enclose themselves in their first year’s
shell. In the following year they may continue to form shell, and thus make
a two-storied Gundlachia from a one-storied Ancylus. Thus we see why the
specimens of the former so much resemble those of the latter found with
them, in the respective localities of each so-called species.

Limnophysa Binneyi Tryon. Many specimens of this fine species
were found by Mr. Dunn at the Cascades of the Columbia, with a Physa,
apparently a large var. of P. diaphanda.

Pomatiopsis intermedia Tryon. Found once near Clear Lake by
Dr. Yates, and by mein a small spring near Saucelito, Marin Co., the last
proved by the animal.

Bythinella Binneyi Tryon. Ihave found what I suppose to be this
near the summit of ‘‘ Black Mountain,’’ Santa Clara Co., over 1,500 ft. alt.,
in a cold mountain rivulet. Others from branches of Alameda Creek found
by Dr. Yates, differ entirely in the animal from that of Pomatiopsis, but it
externally resembles closely that of Amnicola, of which this is scarcely more
than a subgenus.

Cochliopa Rowellii? Tryon. Two fossil specimens from post-pliocene
beds near Green Valley, Contra Costa Co., are so much like this species, as
figured, that it may still exist in California, even though found at Panama
also, as Mr. Tryon believes, from specimens received. Several Central
American fresh-water shells seem to be identical with the northern, and a
Tropical American Pompholyx is described as closely resembling that of
California.

Hydrobia Californica Tryon. After long search I have found
specimens of a true Hydrobia in a very limited station at the head of a
brackish creek on the south side of ‘‘Lake Peralta,’’ Oakland, where they
occur on floating sticks. The shell described by me in Proce. Acad. Se. Phil.
1872, as Assiminea Californica ‘Tryon,’ and mentioned in these Proceedings,

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ye

IV, 173, is quite distinct, and inhabits the outlet of the same creek abundantly,
14 mile lower down. They must be distinguished as follows:

A. Californica Cooper (Tryon in part?). Dark horn-brown, shining,
acute, whorls rapidly increasing, and flattened on spire, a slight parietal callus,
not connecting lips. Animal whitish, tentacles and muzzle tinged black, a
rufous patch on top of head, its foot ovate, twice as long as shell; tentacles
oculiferous, two.

HA. Californica Tryon (emend., figure and part of description). Shell
nearly white, translucent, rough, rather obtuse, whorls slowly increasing, and
very convex, mouth suboyate, lip nearly continuous, leaving a slight notch in
umbilical region. Animal white, top of head and tentacles (four) yellowish,
a black jaw (?), visible in proboscis. which is very extensible; foot with
pointed lateral lobes in front spreading sideways, tapering to a long acute
point behind, tentacles long and sharp, the eyes at their base; foot 174 times
the length of shell—proboscis half its length, tentacles about as long.

The animal of Hydrobia is much more active than that of the former, and
easily observed in a bottle of water taken from its peculiar station.

Reeutar Meretine, Fresruary 15ru, 1875.

The President and Vice-Presidents being absent, Mr. Stearns
was called to the chair.

Eighteen members present.

Donations to the Museum: From Mrs. F. F. Victor a collec-
tion of shells from Modoe Lake, on the northern border of Cali-
fornia. Henry Hemphill donated sundry reptiles and crusta-
ceacez, (not identified); from W. Russel a mole-cricket; from Dr.
Kellogg a specimen of Pinus muricata from Santa Cruz, illustrat-
ing the enlarged umbos when much exposed to the winds of the
coast, also cones of Pinus monophylla, one of the most nutritive
and delicious of all the pifiones. From F. Gruber, the follow-
ing birds: Perdix cinerea, or Kuropean Field Partridge; Ampelis
garrulus, or wax wing; Alauda brachydactyla, or Crossbill; Fring-
illa Coccothraustes, or Grosbeak; Oriolus galba, or Golden
Oriole.

The Secretary read a paper from Professor George Davidson,
as follows:

28 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Abrasions of the Coast of Japan.
BY GEORGE DAVIDSON.

In approaching the coast of Japan on the voyage from San Francisco, there
is opportunity for seeing but a very few miles near the southern eastern
point of the entrance to to the Gulf of Yedo. This we made before daylight,
and so far as I could make it out, there was no feature resembling the well
marked terraced points and capes met with on the northwest coast of North
America.

The surface features of the coast are nevertheless well marked and
distinctive, reminding one of parts of the Pacific coast of Mexico, and of parts
north of latitude forty, except the absence of the heavily timbered slopes and
summits. On the coast of Japan the hills rise steeply to elevations reaching
- two and three thousand feet, and are either cultivated or covered with a dark
green chapparal, with occasional limited masses of small timber. There are
no indications of broad deep valleys, but mostly of short narrow valleys with
sharply sloped sides.

Aiter entering the Gulf of Yeddo the only terraces I could detect are at Cape
Canon, on the western side about twelve miles south of Yokohama, and at a
the part of the Gulf where a moderately sharp contraction of the width of the
Gulf takes place. At this point are exhibited some of the characteristics of
the terraced points off our Pacific Coast. The coast-liné is of quite recent
formation; the stratification somewhat distorted, and has a moderately large
inclination; but the surface of the contracted terraces is parallel with the sea-
level, and has evidently been planed off by the Glacier which moved along
the face of the sloping higher land. On the surface of these terraces lies a
thin layer of soil which is cultivated.

Upon leaving Yokohama for Nagasaki I had another opportunity of ex-
amining this terrace and confirming my previous judgment. Thence to 06
Sima, the coast line was passed in the night time until we made Ise Bay,
where the high, broken and dark outline of the coast hills is seen. Every
hillside is covered with dark green chapparal and small timber; the hills
reach two thousand feet elevation and give no indications of extended valleys.
Skirting along this coast in moderately thick weather we saw no terraced
shores until we neared the promontory off which lies the island of 06, with
its lighthouse, in latitude 32° 25°. Here were unmistakable evidences of ter-
raced coast line, not in one or two cases, but for miles to the northeast of 06
Sima (a), and especially in the island itself. The single terrace of this
island is very well marked parallel to the sea-level, and is about 100 feet above
the water. When abreast of it several slightly projecting terraced points are
seen along the coast to the northeastward, and also on the coast immediately
abreast of the island. But I did not see the terraced lines along the north-

(a) Sima = Island.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 29

west coast line of this promontory, even in the vicinity of O6 Sima. Bad
weather and night shut in further opportunity.

This promontory forms the eastern shores to the eastern entrance to the
great strait, called the inland sea of Japan, through which we passed for two
hundred and fifty miles, enjoying some of the most enchanting views I have
ever seen, reminding me forcibly of the great inland waters from Puget
Sound to the Chilkaht River, but enlivened by hundreds of junks and fishing
vessels; shores lined with villages; steep hillsides terraced for cultivation to
heights of neazly one thousand feet, wherein the numerous terrace walls
would certainly form a total height of four hundred feet, as I have verified
here. Some of the passages are tortuous, narrow and deep—through high
islands or between steep fronted capes. Cultivation on every spot where
even five hundred square feet and less can be terraced. No heavy timber;
sparsely distributed patches of small timber; large growth of chapparal on
the higher and steeper parts of the hills. The mountains rise to elevations of
probably 3,000 feet, but the average height of the outline will be about one
thousand feet. Again no indications of valleys except of the most limited
character.

I looked in vain through all these shores for signs of terrace formation. So
along the outer coast and through the islands from Simonoseki strait to Naga-
saki, the hills preserved their characteristic outlines and shapes, except
Table Mountain, fifteen hundred feet high and lying a few miles west of Naga-
saki.

Here I have had ample opportunity to judge of the general geological char-
acter of the country. It is of the most recent formation, has been violently
distorted by pressure from below, and then eroded into its present irregular
surface. I have looked occasionally for local traces of glacial action in some
of the harder materials, but failed to satisfy myself beyond doubt.

But of the glacial action at Cape Canon, and at O6 Sima, and the adjacent
coast, I have no doubt whatever; but in both cases I could trace but one ter-
race, and that at O6 Sima had an elevation of one hundred feet.

I have communicated this short note to the Academy as an additional evi-
dence to what I have already given of the abrasions of coast line by the action
of glaciers bordering them.

The Secretary also read a paper from Professor Davidson, as
follows:

‘Note on the Probable Cause of the Low Temperature of
the Depths of the Ocean.

BY GEORGE DAVIDSON.

In my first note upon the ‘‘ Abrasions of the Continental Shores of North-
west America, and the supposed Ancient Sea Levels,’’ I attributed these
abrasions to the action of a great body of ice contiguous to the whole line of
our coast, and which moved along the coast line either by the combined forces

30 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

of ocean currents and the pressure of the greater masses from the northward;
or as part of the great ice sheet that covered the continent and moved slowly
southward.

As a glacial mass it extended seaward many miles, as indicated by its action
upon the islands which I therein named. And it seems not only possible,
but highly probable, that this great ice sheet not only covered and bordered
the continent, but that it projected far into the oceans; and not improbably
may have occupied a large part thereof !

We know its effect in the terracing of the rocky coast of Northwest America;
and in cutting the channels through the Santa Barbara Islands; and still
further, I believe we see other effects of its existence and extent in the present
nearly ice-cold temperature of the great depths of the ocean!

The theory which attempts to account for that low temperature by the
transfer of Arctic waters to the depths of ocean utterly fails in the case
of the Northern Pacific Ocean, where the narrow contracted throat of Behring
Strait not only could not give egress to such a volume of cold water in millions
of years, but is actually the channel for the passage of the Kamschatka branch
of the Japan warm stream into the Arctic basin. A small thread of the Arctic
waters does pass through Behring Strait, but it is of very limited section, for
the strait itself has a section of only thirty miles in width by twenty-five
fathoms in depth.

The more that I have looked at the discussions of the theory of the inter-
charging heated surface waters of the equatorial regions with the cold waters
of the Arctic basin, the more strongly I am convinced of its weakness and
insufficiency. And in searching for the cause of the nearly ice cold waters
of the ocean depths, the proved former existence of the great ocean coast
ice belt, and probably of ice masses occupying the high northern and south-
ern areas of the oceans, have seemed to me sufficient to account for the low
temperatures which deep sea explorations have proven to exist.

Dr. Kellogg read a paper describing the different varieties of
Kucalyptus, with their characteristics.

Different Varieties of Eucalyptus, and their Char-
acteristics.

(Letter to Mr. Ellwood Cooper, of Santa Barbara.)
BY DR. A. KELLOGG.

According to promise, I collate a few brief notes on Hucalypti.* As you
have Dr. Mueller’s work I need not quote from it, but give such information
as can be obtained from other sources. For the medical properties of extracts,
etc., I refer you to the Doctor.

I wish to say, first, that I know of but two trees (which now occur to me)
that are perfectly proof against the Teredo navalis, or pile-borer of tide water,

* There are one hundred and thirty-five species. A long time may elapse before a thorough
knowledge of these and their numerous varieties are fully known.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. aa

or their like. These are the Palmetto (Chamerops palmetto) of our southern
coast, and the Yarrah of Australia. There are doubtless many more. (?)

Tf at any time you visit the city, we shall take great pleasure in showing
specimens of timber that have been tested, now in the collection of the
California Academy of Sciences (of which your correspondent is Director in
charge). So that no one need take second-hand opinions, or the [pse dizit of
any one writer, author, or personal friend. This much is due, by way of
introduction. And further, we need to be cautioned against considering that
any one knowsit all. Much experience and careful experimentis yet requisite ;
I trust, however, that thorough tests of all timbers, native and cultivated,
will, ere long, be made, either at our State University or the Academy.

If Iam right, the common Eucalyptus globulus (of which you ‘cultivate so
much) is not an Australian Gum at all, but Tasmanian—New Zealand has
none; if wrong in this impression, I will write again. L. globulus is greatly
infested by beetle borers when transplanted into parks in Australia. We have
a specimen badly eaten by the Teredo, but the card attached omits to name
the species.

E. rostrata.—This is the famous Yarrah (or by corruption, Jarrah of some.
It should be noted that this name is applied by the natives, and vulgarly, to
almost any tree). This specimen is also called Flooded Gum, Red Gum, or
White Gum—described as a striking object on the landscape—so wild and
picturesque ; its huge, gnarled or coiled branches—shining bark of white or
light red—contrasting with dark masses of foliage above, and glancing shad-
ows below, produce peculiar scenic effects of the wildest forests, awakening
the ideas of grandeur, as the lofty object lifts its signal flags high over all the
trees; inspiriting the thirsty, weary and worn traveller from afar with the
living assurances of water.

This is the true species that has proven so perfectly proof against the white
ant and beetle borers; and altogether impervious to the Teredo that infests the
piles of our wharves. A specimen of this timber, presented by Mr. I. C.
Woods of this city, has stood the best of actual trial, as here seen.

This is also largely used for railway ties, etc. The wood is solid as iron;
specific gravity 0.858 to 0.923 or variable, and does not always bear so good a
chazacter—climate, soil, etc., have much to do with the quality of this and all
timber, as we know full well. A large tree, along streams or adjacent to water.

E. tereticornis.—Called Gray Gum, often Red Gum or Blue Gum, and some-
times Bastard Box—a very variable species. Flowers generally seven in a
cluster; seed box has a broad rim, the valves protruding. The wood is good
for posts and rails, or as fuel—has a beautiful grain like oak—takes a fine
polish, and whether exposed or not is durable. Used where the Iron Bark
cannot be had.

E. punctata.—This is mostly termed Hickory or Leather Jacket; has rather
spreading habit; is exceedingly tough and durable; fine for fencing, railway
sleepers, and for fuel. The rim of this seed-vessel is not so broad, nor valves
so prominent; there are several varieties.

E. Stuartiana var. longifolia, is the Yellow Gum; seldom 80 feet high; timber
good; leaves very long; valves of seed-vessel not so prominent as the preceding;

ay PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

wood only used for fencing or fuel; decays rapidly if exposed; easily killed
by a wet season.

E. viminalis.—This is the Manna; also Drooping; called also White Gum;
yields manna, and is remarkable for its elegance; 150 feet high, 8 feet diameter;
not much esteemed. The Gray Gum (£. saligna) sometimes mistaken for
this, etc.

E. dealbata is one of the so-called White Gums, about 50 feet, without
branches, capped with dense foliage, covered with a white powdery bloom
(easily rubbed off); bark of a purplish tinge when young, becoming brown
with age; wood light color, too soft to be of general use; said to shed its bark
every third year.

E. albens is also one of the White Gums; 80 feet high, etc.; wood of little
or no use.

E. goniocalyx is one of the most useful; in some districts called Flooded
Gum; in others, Blue Gum; chiefly found on rivers and creeks, and is also a
forest tree. One mark of this species is the angular calyx—hence specific
name; another, the short, flat peduncles (flower-stems) in umbels or clusters
of seven flowers on short, thick stems; 80 feet or more, 7 feet diameter.
Although the wood varies with soil, it is generally considered highly valuable ;
several of the Blue Gums of catalogues belong to this species; a tree of rapid
growth; specific gravity less than that of any other Gum. The timber is
extensively used for building purposes, as scantling, battens, floors, posts and
rails, ship’s planks, etc. Indicates good soil.

£. dumosa—-the big chaparral bush so annoying to travelers.

E. incrassaia is another of the small species that together constitute the
Mallee Scrub; the natives sharpen and harden in hot embers for digger sticks,
like metal; famous for ramrods, etc.

E. uncinata is Dr. Mueller’s #. oleosa—still another of the above list of
Mallee Scrub; the root runners retain a copious supply of pure water for the
thirsty.

E. hemastoma—Mostly known as White Gum, but in some districts the bark
has gray patches; hence known as Spotted Gum; little esteemed for fuel or
any other use.

£, stellulata—This is the Mountain White Gum; in some districts the bark
is lead-colored, hence named Lead Gum; 30 to 40 feet high, and 2 feet diameter;
wood of no service, save for fuel; distinguished by veins or nerves that start
near the base of the leaves, and run almost parallel to the midrib.

E. coriacea—This is another of White Gums from the Blue Mountains; 40
to 80 feet; not much valued.

E. radiata—The River White Gum (by some considered a variety of the
Messmate or EL. amygdalina). This is a smooth tree with bark often hanging
in long strips from the upper branches; it never grows away from water; 50
to 60 feet; timber not valued by the settler.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 38

E, eugenioides—The Mountain Blue Gum; 100 feet high, and much used by
wheelwrights and carpenters, but is not equal to EL. goniocalyx, the Flooded or
Blue Gum.

E. gracilis is Dr. Mueller’s E. fruticetorum; a small tree or shrub of several
varieties. ; :

£. Saligna a Gray or Flooded Gum of rather drooping habit and no great
size; in low grounds, near salt water; although a fine looking tree, sometimes
100 feet in height, the wood is inferior.

E. maculata or Spotted Gum is one of the handsomest; 100 feet and upwards;
well defined by its double lid and urn-shaped seed-vessel; some esteem it
equal to the English oak, others regard it as fire-wood; used for staves and
upper parts of railroad bridges, etc.; grows in poor soils, New South Wales
and South Queensland.

E. virgata—Styled Mount Ash (this name, I see, is given to #. amygdalina
or Messmate in the Government Report of the Secretary for Agriculture of
1874). This is a fine tree, 120 feet high, growing on rocky mountain ridges;
makes better staves, good shafts, and all common carpenter work, fences, etc.

E. obtusiflora—An inferior kind of Box or Blackbut; has large flowers, and
an ovid blunt seed-vessel; the wood is valueless.

E. pilularis or Blackbut of South Queensland, Gipps Land and New South
Wales, is one of the largest and most valuable species of the Gums. A tree
of over 46 feet circumference 5 feet from the butt; 150 to the first limb. The
wood is excellent for house carpentry, ship building, and, indeed, for any
purpose where strength and durability are required; specific gravity 0.897: no
species known bears a greater crushing strain in the direction of its fibre; it
prefers good soil, and grows rapidly.

E. acmenoides, or White Mahogany, is remotely allied to the above.

E. Bicolor comprises several varieties, called Bastard Box or Yellow Box;
this resembles the narrow-leaved variety of Iron Bark; has grey and white
patches, hence the specific name; 80 to 100 feet high; when young, smooth
above, or half-barked like the Box; older, nearly all the bark falls off; the
wood is very hard, good for fencing, shafts, poles, cogs, etc.; exceedingly
durable; heavy, but does not split well; as it does not sun-crack, it is es-
teemed for spokes, weather boards, etc.

E. hemiphloia is the well-known Box. In first-class repute for hardness,
toughness and durability; burns brilliantly, and emits great heat, but it is
attacked in the ground by dry rot and the white ant; specific gravity, 1.129;
shafts, spokes, plough-beams, etc.

Proc. Cau. AcaD. Sci., Vou. VI.—3.

34 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

E. longifolia, usually called Wooleybut, though in some districts called
Peppermint,* on account of the oil of the leaves having that flavor. <A very
fine tree, with leaves more than a foot long; flowers large, in 3s; seed-vessels
best defined of all, 34 inch long, 24 in diameter, four-celled, valves not pro-
truding beyond the broad oblique rim. The volatile oil of the leaves possess
remarkable qualities, but the wood is not much esteemed, save as fuel; it is,
however, split for fencing and the Jike, but not durable; others say excellent;
the fibre of the bark is adapted for packing and paper making.

E. diversifolia—A tree of beautiful form, 80 feet high; wood indifferent>
buds and seed-vessels small, eight, in axillary or lateral umbels.

E. polyanthemos is a tree of moderate size called Lignum Vite, Poplar-leaved
Gum, or Bastard Box; wood brown towards the centre; very hard and tough.

E. pulverulenta and E. cinerea—Two varieties of small tree called Argyle
Apple (being similar to Angophora subvelutina, or Apple of the Colonists).

E. acmenioides or the White Mahogany; often mistaken for the Stringy
Bark (2. obliqua, capitella, etc.), but the bark is not so fibrous, nor the leaves
so oblique, whilst the specific gravity of the wood is much greater; found
near the coast; timber useful for building purposes, palings, ete.; when nicely
planed, has an ornamental appearance.

E. robusta is the Swamp Mahogany, a very large tree; over 100 feet, and 5
diameter; in low marshy places; seed-vessel more than one-half an inch long,
the capsule deeply sunk; in young trees the leaves are large and glossy. The
wood is not considered durable, though people differ in opinion; used for
cough furniture and inside work, ship-building, wheelwrights, and for mallets,
ete.

E. botryoides is the Bastard Mahogany of workmen; it grows in sandy places
near the sea. A tree of gnarled and crooked growth of no great height; used
for fuel, knees, etc., of vessels.

E. resinifera, often called Red and Forest Mahogany; the-first name is taken
from the color of the wood, the other from being found in forestsremote from
the coast. The wood is very strong and durable, and is used extensively for
fencing, beams, rafters and rough work; specimens of sound wood that had

been fifty-four years in a church were taken down and sent to the Paris
Exposition.

E. corymbosa, or Bloodwood, from the color of the resin that exudes from
between the concentric circles; inland species; 120 feet; for fences and fire-
wood; of rapid growth; the wood is soft, especially in young trees; becomes

* This we take to be the far-famed fire-proof shingle tree; sparks can only burn a hole
through, but it will neither flame nor spread; splits to a charm.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 35

harder in age; said to stand well in damp ground; some affirm its great
strength and durability; seeds winged.

E. eximia is the Mountain Bloodwood; Bentham thought this species more
nearly allied to EZ. maculata or Spotted Gum than to Bloodwood; flowers large,
corymbose; the operculum or lid is double, the seed-vessel is urn-shaped,
nearly an inch long; top of capsule deeply sunk.

E. stricta is a shrubby species; fine linear leaves; forms thick brushes; it is
the E. microphylla.of Cunningham.

E. dives* and E. piperita are two of the Peppermints; the first has small,
and often opposite leaves; the latter very large, like a Stringy Bark, but not
so thick, nor are they so oblique at the base; flower-buds smaller; lid more
hemispherical and sharper at the point, whilst the seed-vessel is more globose;
but they vary from Mountain Ash (£. radiata) in bark and habit; 5 to 15 feet
diameter; 200 feet of clear shaft, etc.

E. melliodora, the Red Flowering or Black Iron Bark; flowers ornamental;
delicious honey-like odor, as the name indicates; 60 feet; timber in quality
variable.

E. panniculata, and E. cerebra (one species), are mere varieties of the White
Tron Bark, one of the most valuable trees; specific gravity, 1.016; the breaking
weight of a transverse strain of a beam four feet between bearings 17% square,
4,519 lbs.; best of all the Iron Barks; a smooth, uniform outer bark; hard,
tough, inlocked strong wood; highly esteemed by coach-makers and wheel-
wrights for poles, shafts, ete., of carriages, spokes of wheels; also largely for
piles and railway sleepers; 150 feet high by 16 feet diameter; both of these
are united into one species.

_ E. siderophloia is the Red or Large-leaved Iron Bark, formerly described as
E. resinifera; this yields the brown gum or Botany Bay Kino (inspissated
juice). The wood though not so tough as the preceding, is considered one
of the strongest and most durable of timbers. There are two varieties; both
vary from 80 to 120 feet, distinguished by the bark, which is darker color than
the £. panniculata or White Iron Bark, and the leaves are more uniformly
larger.

E. melanophioia is the Silver-leaved or Broad-leaved Iron Bark; a taller tree
than the other Iron Barks, and readily known by its stemless or sessile
opposite leaves, which are glaucous or mealy white.

E. obliqua, E. capitella and E. macrorhyncha—Hon. Wm. Woolls, F. L. 8. (from
whom we collate), considers them all as forms of the Stringy Bark, only
varying with climate, soil, elevation or proximity to the sea, etc.; rises to 100

*It is possible this may be the Shingle tree (?) of a previous note.

36 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

or 120 feet; some of these woods are reported as excellent for house-carpentry,
whilst others were inferior; 300 to 400 feet high; the bark makes packing,
printing, and even writing paper; also good for mill and paste-boards; the
pulp bleaches readily; forms the main mass of forests of the more barren
mountains; the thick bark has also been successfully manufactured into
door-mats, cheap fences, palings, shimgles and wood-work.

E. amygdalina or Almond-leaved Eucalyptus, or Messmate, is like the Stringy
Bark, but the upper branches are smooth; 200 feet high; wood not much
valued; a hard tree for the settlers to kill, it is so irregular at the base; wood
folded or deeply indented, forming clefts or ‘‘ pockets ’’ so that they cannot
ring, belt or girdle the tree to advantage, for they fail to reach all the bark of
these hollows. In the Messmate the leaves are not so thick as in the Stringy
Bark, nor are they so oblique at the base; flower-buds are smaller; lid more
hemispherical, and its point sharper, whilst the seed-vessel is more globose;
but they vary from #. radiata in bark and habit; 5 to 15 feet diameter, with
200 feet of clean shaft.

Dr. Mueller’s scientific work abounds in varied information; but collations
from that work are omitted to avoid repetition. For medical and manifold
uses see his work.

P. 5.—As Dr. Mueller’s ‘‘Additions to the List of Principal Timber Trees,
etc.’’ (Issued 1871-2, by the Victorian Acclimatization Society) is not access-
ible to many, we extract the following:

E. botryoides, Smith. From East Gipps Land to South Queensland. One
of the most stately among many species, remarkable for its dark green shady
foliage. It delights on river banks—80 feet without a branch, diameter of 8
feet. Timber usually sound to the center; water work, wagons, knees of
boats, etc., for posts very lasting, as no decay was observed in 14 years.

E.. brachypoda, Ture. Widely dispersed over the most arid tropical and
extra-tropical inland regions of Australia. One of the best trees for desert
tracts; in favorable places 150 feet high. Wood brown, sometimes very dark,
hard, heavy and elastic, prettily marked, used for cabinet work, but more
particularly for piles, bridges and railway sleepers. (Rey. Dr. Woolls).

E. calophylla, R. Brown. §.W. Australia. More umbrageous than most
Eucalypti, and of comparatively rapid growth. The wood is free of resin
when grown on alluvial land, but not so when produced on stony ranges.
Preferred to EL. marginata and E. cornuta for rafters, spokes and fence-rails—
strong and light but not lasting long underground. Bark valuable for tan-
ning, as anjadmixture to Acacia bark.

E. cornuta. §. W. Australia. A large tree of rapid growth, prefers a some-
what humid soil. Used for various artizan work, preferred for strongest
shafts and frames of carts, and work requiring hardness, toughness and elas-
ticity.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 37

E. crebra, F. V. Mueller. The narrow-leaved Iron Bark of N. S. Wales
and Queensland. Wood reddish, hard, heavy, elastic and durable; for
bridges much in use, also for wagons, piles, fencing, ete. H. melanophoia,
(F. V. M.) the silver-leaved Iron Bark; LE. leptophieba; E. trachyphloia and E.
drepanphylla are closely allied species of similiar value. They all exude as-
tringent gum-resin in considerable quantity, like Kino in appearance and

property.

E. Doratoxylon, F. V.M. The spearwood of 8. W. Australia. In sterile
districts. The stem is slender and remarkably straight, wood firm and elas-
tic; nomadic natives wander far to obtain it for their spears.

E. eugenioides, S. N.S. Wales. Regarded by the Rev. Dr. Woolls as a
fully distinct species. Its splendid wood, there often called Blue Gum tree
wood, available for many purposes, and largely utilized for ship building.

E. goniocalyxz, F. V. M. From Cape Otway to the southern parts of N. S.
Wales. A large tree, which should be included among those for new planta-
tions. Its wood resembles in many respects that of EH. globulus, proved a
valuable timber for house building, fence rails, etc.

E. Gunnii, J. Hook. At Alpine and sub-Alpine elevations.

The other more hardy Eucalypts comprise EL. coriacea, HE. E. alpina, urni-
gera, E. coccifera, and EH. vernicosa, which all reach heights covered with
snow for several months in the year.

E. Leucoxylon, F. V. M. (E. siderorylon, syn.) The common Iron bark of
Victoria. Some parts of §. Australia and N. 8S. Wales. As this durable
timber is falling short, and for some purposes superior to almost any other
Eucalypt, its culture should be festered, especially as it can be raised on stony
ridges of little use. The wood is pale, sometimes dark. The tree restricted
generally to the lower silurian sandstone and slate, with ironstone and quartz.
It is rich in Kino.

E. Phenicea, F. V. M. Little is known of the timber, but the brilliancy of
its scarlet flowers should commend it to extensive culture. For the same
reason also E. miniata from North Australia, and £. ficifolia from S. W. Aus-
tralia. Carpenteria and Arnheim’s Land.

E. platyphylla, F. V. M. Queensland. One of the best shade trees. Rev.
Mr. Woods saw leaves 14% long by 1 foot wide. Thrives in open or exposed
localities. ;

E. tesselaris, F. V. M. N. Australia and Queensland. Furnishes a brown,
rather elastic wood, not very hard, available for varied artizan work, staves,
flooring, ete. Exudes much astringent gum-resin.

38 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Mr. Stearns made some verbal remarks concerning Dr. Kel-
loge’s paper, and mentioned the proper and improper methods
of transplanting the young trees.

Mr. Stearns also called the attention of the Academy to the
peculiarities of certain young trout in the hatching troughs at
Berkeley. Some of the fish which were hatched from eggs
brought from the Eastern States by rail, were double—some
two heads and one tail, and others. were distinctly formed but
joined together by a filmy substance.

A letter was read from Prof. D. C. Gilman, President of the
University of California, inviting the members of the Academy
to hold a session at Berkeley on Monday, February 22d.

The invitation was accepted, and the Academy adjourned to
meet at Berkeley on Monday, February 22d, at 11 a. m.

Speci, Merrine ar Burxenny, F'epruary 22d, 1875.
Henry G. Hanks in the Chair.

Mr. Stearns, in behalf of the Academy, made some remarks
to those present, reminding the members that the Academy must
depend mainly upon the University to fill its ranks as time
thinned it of its pioneers.

Professor Joseph LeConte read the following paper, the result
of original investigations near Lake Tahoe:

On some of the Ancient Glaciers of the Sierra.
BY JOSEPH LE CONTE,
Professor of Geology of the University of California.
TI.—SomeE or THE TRIBUTARIES OF LAKE VALLEY GLACIER.

Last summer I had again an opportunity of examining the pathways of
some of the ancient glaciers of the Sierra. It will be remembered, by those
interested in this subject, that two years ago I published a paper with the
above title.* One of the grandest of the glaciers there mentioned was one

*Am, Journal, Ser. III, Vol. 5, p. 125. Proc. Cal. Acad. Sciences, Vol. IV, part 5, p. 259.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 39

which I called Lake Valley Glacier. Taking its rise in snow fountains
amongst the high peaks in the neighborhood of Silver Mountain, this great
glacier flowed northwards down Lake Valley, and gathering tributaries from
the summit ridges on either side of the valley, but especially from the higher
western summits, it filled the basin of Lake Tahoe, forming a great mer de
glace, 50 miles long, 15 miles wide, and at least 2,000 feet deep, and finally
escaped northeastward to the plains. The outlets of this great mer de glace
are yet imperfectly known. A part of the ice certainly escaped by Truckee
Caion, (the present outlet of the lake); a part probably went over the north-
eastern margin of the basin. My studies during the summer were confined
to some of the larger tributaries of this great glacier.

Truckee Caron and Donner Lake Glaciers.—I have said that one of the out-
lets of the great mer de glace was by the Truckee River Cafion. The stage
road to Lake Tahoe runs in this canon for fifteen miles. In most parts of
the canon the rocks are voleanic and crumbling, and therefore ill adapted to
retain glacial marks; yet in some places where the rock is harder these marks
are unmistakable. On my way to and from Lake Tahoe, I observed that the
Truckee Caton glacier was joined at the town of Truckee by a short but
powerful tributary, which, taking its rise in an immense rocky amphitheater
surrounding the head of Donner Lake, flowed eastward. Donner Lake,
which occupies the lower portion of this amphitheater, was evidently formed
by the down-flowing of the ice from the steep slopes of the upper portion
near the summit. The stage road from Truckee to the summit runs along the
base of a moraine close by the margin of the lake on one side, while on the
other side, along the apparently almost perpendicular rocky face of the am-
phitheater, 1,000 feet above the surface of the lake, the Central Pacific Rail-
road winds its fearful way to the same place. In the upper portion of this
amphitheater large patches of snow still remain unmelted during the summer.

My examination of these two glaciers, however, was very cursory. I hasten
on, therefore, to others which I traced more carefully.

As already stated in my former paper, Lake Tahoe lies countersunk on the
very top of the Sierra. This great range is here divided into two summit
ridges, between which lies a trough 50 miles long, 20 nriles wide, and 3,000-
3,500 feet deep. This trough is Lake Valley. Its lower half is filled with the
waters of Lake Tahoe. The area of this lake is about 250 square miles, its
depth 1,640 feet, and its altitude 6,200 feet. It is certain that during the
fullness of glacial times this trough was a great mer de glace, receiving trib-
utaries from all directions except the north. But as the glacial epoch waned—
as the great mer de glace dwindled and melted away, and the lake basin be-
came occupied by water instead, the tributaries still remained as separate
glaciers flowing into the lake. The tracks of these lingering smaller glaciers
are far more easily traced, and their records far more easily read, than are
those of the greater but more ancient glacier of which they were. but once
the tributaries.

Of the two summit ridges mentioned above, the western is the higher. It
bears the most snow now, and in glacial times gave origin to the grandest

40 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

glaciers. Again: the peaks on both these summits rise higher and higher as
we go toward the upper or southern end of the lake. Hence the largest gla-
ciers ran into the lake at its southwestern end. And, since the mountain slopes
here are towards the northeast and therefore the shadiest and coolest, here
also the glaciers have had the greatest vitality and lived the longest, and have,
therefore, left the plainest record. Doubtless, careful examination would
discover the pathways of glaciers running into the lake from the eastern sum-
mits also; but I failed to detect any very clear traces of such, either on the
eastern or on the northern portion of the western side of the lake; while
between the southwestern end and Sugar Pine Point, a distance of only eight
or ten miles, I saw distinctly the pathways of five or six. North of Sugar Pine
Point there are also several They are all marked by moraine ridges running
down from the summits and projecting as points into the lake. The pathways
of three of these glaciers I studied somewhat carefully, and after a few pre-
liminary remarks, will describe in some detail.

Mountains are the culminating points of the scenic grandeur and beauty
of the earth. They are so, because they are also the culminating points of all
geological agencies—igneous agencies in mountain formation, aqueous agencies
in mountain sculpture. Now, I have already said that the mountain peaks
which stand above the lake on every side, are highest at the southwestern
end, where they rise to the altitude of 3,000 feet above the lake surface, or be-
tween 9,000 and 10,000 feet above the sea. Here, therefore, ran in the great-
est glaciers, here we find the profoundest glacial sculpturings, and here also
are clustered all the finest beauties of this the most beautiful of mountain
lakes. I need only name Mt. Tallac, Fallen Leaf Lake, Cascade Lake, and
Emerald Bay, all within three or four miles of each other and of the Tallac
House. These three exquisite little lakes, (the Emerald Bay is also almost a
lake) nestled closely aguinst the loftiest peaks of the western summit ridge,
are all perfect examples of glacial lakes.

South of Lake Tahoe, Lake Vailey extends for fifteen miles as a plain,
gently rising southward. At its lower end it is but a tew feet above the lake
surface, covered with glacial drift modified by water, and diversified, especially
on its western side, by débris ridges, the moraines of glaciers which continued
to flow into the valley or into the lake long after the main glacier, of which
they were once tributaries, had dried up. On approaching the south end of
the lake by steamer, I had observed these long ridges, divined their meaning,
and determined on a closer acquaintance. While staying at the Tallac House
I repeatedly visited them, and explored the canons down which their materials
were brought. I proceed to describe them.

Fallen Leaf Lake (lacier.—Fallen Leaf Lake (see map) lies on the
plain of Lake Valley, about one a half miles from Lake Tahoe, its surface
but a few feet above the level of the latter lake, but its bottom far, probably
several hundred feet, below that level. It is about three to three and one-half
miles long and one and one-fourth miles wide. From its upper end runs a
cation bordered on either side by the highest peaks in thisregion. The rocky ~
walls of this canon terminate on the east side at the head of the lake, but on
the west side, a little further down. The lake is bordered on each side by an

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 4]

admirably marked débris ridge (moraines) three hundred feet high, four miles
long, and one and one-half to two miles apart. These moraines may be traced
back to the termination of the rocky ridges which bound the cafion, On the
one side the moraine lies wholly on the plain; on the other side its upper
part lies against the slope of Mt. Tallac. Near the lower end of the lake a
somewhat obscure branch ridge comes off from each main ridge, and curving
around they form an imperfect terminal moraine, through which the outlet of
the lake breaks its way. é

On ascending thé cation the glaciation is very conspicuous, and becomes
more and more splendid at every step. From Soda Springs (map s.s.) up-
wards, it is the most beautiful I have ever seen. In some places, for many
acres in extent, the whole rocky bottom of the caion is smooth and polished,
aod gently undulating, like the surface of a glassy but billowy sea. The
glaciation is distinct, also, up the sides of the cafion 1,000 feet above its floor.

There can be no doubt, therefore, that a glacier once came down this canon,
filling it 1,000 feet deep, scooped out Fallen Leaf Lake just where it struck
the plain and changed its angle of slope, and pushed its snout four miles out
_on the level plain, nearly to the present shores of Lake Tahoe, dropping its
débris on either side, and thus forming a bed for itself. In its subsequent
retreat it seems to have rested its snout some time at the lower end of Fallen
Leaf Lake, and accumulated there an imperfect terminal moraine. The out-
lines of this little lake, with its bordering moraines, are shown in the diakram
map.

2. Cascade Lake Glacier.—Cascade Lake, like Fallen Leaf Lake, is about
one and one-half miles from Lake Tahoe, but, unlike Fallen Leaf Lake, its
discharge creek has considerable fall, and the lake surface is, therefore, prob-
ably 100 feet above the level of the greater lake. On either side of this creek,
from the very border of Lake Tahoe, runs a moraine ridge up to the lake,
and thence close along each side of the lake up to the rocky points which
terminate the true mountain canon above the head of the lake. I have never
anywhere seen more perfectly defined moraines. I climbed over the larger
western moraine and found that it is partly merged into the eastern moraine
of Emerald Bay to form a medial at least 300 feet high, and of great breadth,
(see map.) From the surface of the little lake, the curving branches of the
main moraine, meeting below the lake to form a terminal moraine, are
very distinct. At the head of the lake there is a perpendicular cliff over
which the river precipitates itself, forming a very pretty cascade of 100 feet
or more. On ascending the canon above the head of the lake, for several
miles, I found, everywhere, over the lip of the precipice, over the whole floor
of the canon, and up the sides 1,000 feet or more, the most perfect glaciation.

There cannot be, therefore, the slightest doubt that this also is the pathway
of aglacier which once ran into Lake Tahoe. After coming down its steep
rocky bed, this glacier precipitated itself over the cliff, scooped out the lake
at its foot, and then ran on until it bathed its snout in the waters of Lake
Tahoe, and probably formed icebergs there. In its subsequent retreat it seems
to have dropped more débris in its path, and formed a more perfect terminal
moraine than did Fallen Leaf Lake Glacier.

492 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Emerald Bay Glacier.—All that I have said of Fallen Leaf Lake and Cas-
cade Lake, apply, almost word for word, to Emerald Bay. This beautiful
bay, almost a lake, has also been formed by a glacier. It also is bounded on
either side by moraines, which run down to and even project into Lake Tahoe,
and may be traced up to the rocky points which form the mouth of the canon
at the head of the bay. Its eastern moraine, as already stated, is partly
merged into the western moraine of Cascade Lake, to form a huge medial
moraine. Its western moraine lies partly against a rocky ridge which runs
down to Lake Tahoe to form Rubicon Point. At the head of the bay, as at
the head of Cascade Lake, there is a cliff about 100 feet high, over which the
river precipitates itself and forms a beautiful cascade. Over the lip of this
cliff, and in the bed of the canon above, and up the sides of the cliff-like
walls, 1,000 feet or more, the most perfect glaciation is found. The only dif-
ference between this glacier and the two preceding is, that it ran more deeply
into the main lake and the deposits dropped in its retreat did not rise high
enough to cut off its little rock basin from that lake, but exists now only as a
shallow bar at the mouth of the bay. This bar consists of true moraine mat-
ter, i. e., intermingled boulders and sand, which may be examined through
the exquisitely transparent water almost as perfectly as if no water were
present. Some of the boulders are of large size.

All that I have described separately and in detail, and much more, may be
taken in at one view from the top of Mt. Tallac. From this peak nearly the
whole course of these three glaciers, their fountain amphitheaters, their cation
beds, and their lakes enclosed between their moraine arms, may be seen at
once. The view from this peak is certainly one of the finest I have ever seen.
Less grand and diversified in mountain forms than many from peaks above
the Yosemite, it has the added beauty of extensive water surface, and the
added interest of several glacial pathways in a limited space. The observer
sits on the very edge of the fountain amphitheaters still holding large masses
of snow: immediately below, almost at his feet, lie glistening, gem-like, in
dark, rocky setting, the three exquisite little lakes; on either side of these,
embracing and protecting them, stretch out the moraine arms, reaching to-
ward and directing the eye to the great lake, which lies, map-like, with all its
sinuous outlines perfectly distinct, even to its extreme northern end, twenty-
five to thirty miles away. As the eye sweeps again up the canon-beds, little
lakes, glacier-scooped rock basins, filled with ice-cold water, flash in the sun-
light on every side. Twelve or fifteen of these may be seeu.

From appropriate positions on the surface of Lake Tahoe, also, all the
moraine ridges are beautifully seen at once, but the glacial lakes and the
caiion-beds, of course, cannot be seen. I have attempted, in the rough sketch
accompanying this paper, to express the combined results of observations
from many points. The outlines of the great and small lakes are accurate,
as these have been taken from reliable maps. Also the general position of
the rocky points, and the moraine ridges, are tolerably correct. But, other-
wise, the sketch is intended as an illustrative diagram rather than a topo-
graphical map. The view is supposed to be taken from an elevated position
above the lake surface, looking southward.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 43

There are several questions of a general nature suggested by my examina-
tion of these three glacial pathways, which I have thought best to consider
separately.

a. Evidences of the existence of the Great Lake Valley Glacier.—In my former
paper I have already given some evidence of the former existence of this
glacier in the glacial forms detectable in the upper part of this valley. I will
now give some additional evidence gathered last summer.

On the south shore of Lake Tahoe, and especially at the northern or lower
end of Fallen Leaf Lake, I found many pebbles and some large boulders of a
beautifully striped, agate-like slate. The stripes consisted of alternate bands,
of black and translucent white, the latter weathering into milk white, or yel-
lowish, orreddish. It was perfectly evident that these fragments were brought
down from the cafton above Fallen Leaf Lake. On ascending this canon I
easily found the parent rock of these pebbles and boulders. It is a powerful
outcropping ledge of beautifully striped silicious slate, full of fissures and
joints, and easily broken into blocks of all sizes, crossing the canon about a
half mile above the lake. This rock is so peculiar and so easily identified
that its fragments become an admirable index of the extent of the glacial
transportation. I have, myself, traced these pebbles only a little way along
the western shores of the great lake, as my observations were principally
confined to this pait; but I learn from my brother, Professor John Le Conte,
and from Mr. John Muir, both of whom have examined the pebbles I brought
home, that precisely similar fragments are found in great abundance all along
the western shore from Sugar Pine Point northward, and especially on the
extreme northwestern shore nearly thirty miles from their source. I have
visited the eastern shore of the lake somewhat more extensively than the
western, and nowhere did I see similar pebbles. Mr. Muir, who has walked
around the lake, tells me that they do not occur on the eastern shore. We
have, then, in the distribution of these pebbles, demonstrative evidence of
the fact that Falien Leaf Lake glacier was once a tributary of a much greater
glacier which filled Lake Tahoe.

The only other agency to which we could attribute this transportation, is
that of shore ice and icebergs, which probably did once exist on Lake Tahoe;
but the limitation of the pebbles to the western, and especially the north-
western shores, is in exact accordance with the laws of glacial transportation,
but contrary to those of floating ice transportation—for lake ice is carried
only by winds, and would, therefore, deposit equally on all shores.

Again: I think I find additional evidence of a Lake Tahoe mer de glace in
the contrasted character of the northern and southern shores of this lake.

All the little glacial lakes described above are deep at the upper end and
shallow at the lower end. Further: all of them have a sand beach and asand
flat at the upper end, and great boulders thickly scattered in the shallow water,
and along the shore at the lower end. These facts are easily explained, if we
remember that while the glacial scooping was principally at the upper end, the
glacial droopings were principally at the lower end. And further: that while
the glacial deposit was principally at the lower end, the river deposit, since
the glacial epoch, has been wholly at the upper end.

44 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Now the great lake, also, has a similar structure. It also has a beautiful
sand and gravel beach all along its upper shore, and a sand flat extending
above it; while at its lower, or northern end, thickly strewed in the shallow
water, and along the shore line, and some distance above the shore line, are
found in great abundance boulders of enormous size. May we not conclude
that similar effects have been produced by similar causes—that these huge
boulders were dropped by the great glacier at its lower end ? Similar boulders
are also found along the northern portion of the eastern shore, because the
principal flow of the ice-current was from the southwest, and in the fullness
of glacial times the principal exit was over the northeastern lip of the basin.

b. Origin of Lake Tahoe.—That Lake Tahoe was once wholly occupied by
ice, I think, is certain, but that it was scooped out by Lake Valley glacier is
perhaps more doubtful. All other Sierra lakes which I have seen certainly
owe their origin to glacial agency. Neither do I think we should be staggered
by the size or enormous depth of this lake. Yet, from its position, it may be
a plication-hollow, or a trough produced by the formation of two parallel
mountain ridges, and afterwards modified by glacial agency, instead of a pure
glacial-scooped rock-basin. In other words, Lake Valley, with its two summit
ridges, may well be regarded as a phenomena belonging to the order of mountain-
formation and not to the order of mountain sculpture. I believe an examination
of the rocks of the two summit ridges would probably settle this. In the
absence of more light than I now have, I will not hazard an opinion.

ec. Passage of slate into granite——From the commencement of the rocky
canon at the head of Fallen Leaf Lake, and up for about two miles, the canon
walls and Led are composed of slate. The slate, however, becomes more and
more metamorphic as we go up, until it passes into what might be called
trap. In some places it looks like diorite, and in others like porphyry. I saw
no evidence, however, of any outburst. This latter rock passes somewhat
more rapidly into granite at Soda Springs. From this point the cafon bed
and lower walls are granite, but the highest peaks are still a dark, splintery,
metamorphic slate. The glacial erosion has here cut through the slate and
bitten deep into the underlying granite. The passage from slate through por-
phyritic diorite into granite, may, I think, be best explained by increasing
degree of metamorphism, and at the same time a change of the original sedi-
ments at this point, granite being the last term of metamorphism of pure
clays, or clayey sandstones, while bedded diorites are similarly formed from
ferruginous and calcareous slates. Just at the junction of the harder and
tougher granite with the softer and more jointed slates, occur, as might be
expected, cascades in the river. Itis probable that the cascades at the head
of Cascade Lake and Emerald Bay mark, also, the junction of the granite
with the slate—only the junction here is covered with débris. Just at the
same junetion, in Fallen Leaf Lake Canon, burst out the waters of Soda
Springs, highly charged with bicarbonates of iron and soda.

d. Glacial Deltas.—1I have stated that the moraines of Cascade Lake and
Emerald Bay glaciers run down to the margin of Lake Tahoe. An examina-
tion of this portion of the lake shore shows that they ran far into the lake—

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 45

that the lake has filled in two or three miles by glacial débris. On the east
margin of Lake Tahoe, the water, close along the shore, is comparatively
shallow, the shore rocky, and along the shore-line, above and below water,
are scattered great boulders, probably dropped by the main glacier. But on
the west margin of the lake the shore-line is composed wholly of moraine
matter, the water very deep close to shore, and the bottom composed of pre-
cisely similar moraine matter. In rowing along the shore, I found that the
exquisite ultramarine blue of the deep water extends to within 100-150 feet
of the shore-line. At this distance, the bottom could barely be seen. Judg-
ing from the experiments of my brother, Professor John Le Conte, according
to which a white object could be seen at a depth of 115 feet, I suppose the
depth along the line of junction of the ultramarine blue and the emerald
green water, is at least 100 feet. The slope of the bottom is, therefore,
nearly, or quite, 45°. Itseems, in fact, a direct continuation beneath the
water of the moraine slope. The materials, also, which may be examined
with ease through the wonderfully transparent water, are exactly the same as
that composing the moraine, viz: earth, pebbles, and boulders of all sizes,
some of them of encrmous dimensions. It seems almost certain that the
margin of the great Lake Valley glacier, and of the lake itself when this glacier
had melted and the tributaries first began to run into the lake, was the series of
rocky points at the head of the three little lakes, about three or four miles back
from the present margin of the main lake; and that all lakeward from these
points has been filled in and made land by the action of the three glaciers de-
seribed. At that time Rubicon Point was a rocky promontory, projecting far
into the lake, beyond which was another wide bay, which has been similarly
filled in by débris brought down by glaciers north of this point. The long
moraines of these glaciers are plainly visible from the lake surface; but I
have not examined them. Thus, all the land, for three or four miles back
from the lake-margin, both north and south of Rubicon Point, is composed
of confluent glacial deltas, and on these deltas the moraine ridges are the natural
levées of these ice-streams

e. Parallel Moraines.—The moraines described above are peculiar and
almost unique. Nowhere, except about Lake Tahoe and near Lake Mono, have
I seen moraines in the form of pdrallel ridges, lying on a level plain and ter-
minating abruptly without any signs of transverse connection (terminal moraine)
at the lower end. Nor haveTI been able to find any description of similar
moraines in other countries. They are not terminal moraines, for the glacial
pathway is open below. They are not lateral moraines, for these are borne
on the glacier itself, or else stranded on the steep cafon sides. Neither do I
think moraines of this kind would be formed by a glacier emerging from a
steep narrow canon and running out on a level plain; for in such cases, as
soon as the confinement of the bounding walls is removed, the ice stream
spreads out into an ice lake. It does so as naturally and necessarily as does
water under similar circumstances. Thedeposit would be nearly transverse
to the direction of motion, and, therefore, more or less crescentic. There
must be something peculiar in the conditions under which these parallel
ridges were formed. I believe the conditions were as described below.

46 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

We have already given reason to think that the original margin of the lake
in glacial times was three or four miles back from the present margin, along
the series of rocky points against which the ridges abut; and that all the flat
plain thence to the present margin is made land. If so, then it is evident
that at that time the three glaciers described ran far out into the lake, until
reaching deep water, they formed icebergs. Under these conditions, it is
plain that the pressure on this, the subaqueous portion of the glacial bed,
would be small, and become less and less until it becomes nothing at the
point where the icebergs float away. The pressure on the bed being small,
not enough to overcome the cohesion of the ice, there would be no spreading.
A glacier running down a steep narrow canon and out into deep water, and form-
ing icebergs at its point, would maintain its slender, tongue-like form, and drop
its débris on each side, forming parallel ridges, and would not form a terminal
moraine, because the materials not dropped previously would be carried off by
icebergs. In the subsequent retreat of such a glacier, imperfect terminal
moraines might be formed higher up, where the water is not deep enough to
form icebergs. It is probable, too, that since the melting of the great mer de
glace and the formation of the lake, the level of the water has gone down
considerably, by the deepening of the Truckee Canon outlet by means of
erosion. Thus, not only did the glaciers retreat from the lake, but also
the lake from the glaciers.

As already stated, similar parallel moraine ridges are formed by the glaciers
which ran down the steep eastern slope of the Sierras, and out on the level
plains of Mono. By far the most remarkable are those formed by Bloody
Cafon Glacier, and described in my former paper. These moraines are six
or seven miles long, 300-400 feet high, and the parallel crests not more than a

nile asunder. There, also, as at Lake Tahoe, we find them terminating
abruptly in the plain without any sign of terminal moraine. But higher up
there are small, imperfect, transverse moraines, made during the subsequent
retreat, behind which water “has collected, forming lakes and marshes. But
observe: these moraines are also in the vicinity of a great lake ; and we have
abundant evidence, in very distinct terraces described by Whitney,* and
observed by myself, that in glacial times the water stood at least six hundred
feet above the present level. In fact, there can be no doubt that at that time
the waters of Mono Lake (ora much greater body of water of which Mono
is the remnant) washed against the bold rocky points from which the débris
ridges start. The glaciers in this vicinity, therefore, must have run out into the
water six or seven miles, and doubtless formed icebergs at their point, and,
therefore, formed no terminal moraine there.

That the glaciers described about Lake Tahoe and Lake Mono ran out far
into water and formed icebergs, I think is quite certain, and that parallel
moraines opened below are characteristic signs of such conditions, I also
think nearly certain.

f. Glacial Erosion.—My observation on glacial pathways in the high Sierra,
and especially about Lake Tahoe, have greatly modified my views as to the

* Geological Survey of California, Vol. I, p. 451.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 4

nature of glacial erosion. All writers on this subject seem to regard glacial
erosion as mostly, if not wholly, a grinding and scoring; the débris of this
erosion as rock-meal; the great boulders which are found in such immense
quantities in the terminal deposit, as derived wholly from the crumbling cliffs
above the glacial surface; the rounded boulders, which are often the most
numerous, as derived in precisely the same way, only they have been engulfed
by crevasses, or between the sides of the glacier and the bounding wall, and
thus carried between the moving ice and its rocky bed, as between the upper
and nether millstone. Ina word, all boulders, whether angular, or rounded,
are supposed to owe their origin or separation from their parent rock to
atmospheric agency, and only their transportation and shaping to glacialagency .

Now, if such be the true view of glacial erosion, evidently its effect in.
mountain sculpture must be small indeed. Roches moutonneés are recognized
by all as the most universal and characteristic sign of a glacial bed. Some-
times these beds are only imperfectly moutonneés, i. e., they are composed
of broken angular surface with only the points and edges planed off. Now,
moutonneés surfaces always, and especially angular surfaces with only points
and edges beveled, show that the erosion by grinding has been only very
superficial. They show that if the usual view of glacial erosion be correct,
the great cations, so far from being formed, were only very slightly modified
by glacialagency. But Iam quite satisfied from my own observations that this
is not the only nor the principal mode of glacial erosion. I am convinced that
a glacier, by its enormous pressure and resistless onward movement, is
constantly breaking off large blocks from its bed and bounding walls. Its
erosion is not only a grinding and scoring, but also a crushing and breaking.
It makes by its erosion not only rock-meal, but also large rock-chips. 'Thus,
a glacier is constantly breaking off blocks and making angular surfaces, and
then grinding off the angles both of the fragments and the bed, and thus
forming rounded boulders and moutouneés surfaces. Its erosion is a constant
process of alternate rough hewing and planing. If the rock be full of fissures,
and the glacier deep and heavy, the rough hewing so predominates that the
plane has only time to touch the corners a little before the rock is again
broken and new angles formed. This is the case high up on the cafon walls,
at the head of Cascade Lake and Emerald Bay, but also in the cavion beds
wherever the slate is approached. If, on the other hand, the rock is very hard
and solid, and the glacier be not very deep and heavy, the planing will pre-
dominate over the rough hewing, and a smooth, gently billowy surface is the
result. This is the case in the hard granite forming the beds of all the
cafions high up, but especially high up the cafion of Fallen Leaf Lake, where
the cation spreads out, and extensive but comparatively thin snow-sheets have
been at work. In some cases on the cliffs, subsequent disintegration of a
glacier-polished surface may have given the appearance of angular surfaces
with beveled corners; but, in other cases, in the bed of the cavion, and on
elevated level places, where large loosened blocks could not be removed by
water nor by gravity, I observed the same appearances, under conditions which
forbid this explanation. Mr. Muir, also, in his Studies in the Sierra, gives
many examples of undoubted rock-breaking by ancient glaciers.

48 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Angular blocks are, therefore, mostly the ruins of crumbling cliffs, borne
on the surface of the glacier and deposited at its toot. Many rownded boulders
also have a similar origin, having found their way to the bed of the glacier
through crevasses, or along the sides of the glacier. But most of the rounded
boulders in the terminal deposit‘of great glaciers are fragments torn off by the
glacier itself. The proportion of angular to rounded boulders—of upper or
air-formed to nether or glacier-formed fragments, depends on the depth and
extent of the ice current In the case of the universal ice-sheet (ice-flood)
there is, of course, no upper formed or angular blocks at all—there is nothing
borne on the surface. The moraine, therefore, consists wholly of nether-formed
and nether-borne severely triturated materials (moraine profonde). The boulders
are, of course, all rounded. This is one extreme. In the case of the thin
moving ice-fields—the glacierets still lingering amongst the highest peaks and
shadiest hollows of the Sierra—on the other hand, the moraines are composed
wholly of angular blocks. This is the character of the terminal moraine of Mt.
Lyell glacier, described in my previous paper. These glacierets are too thin and
feeble and torpid to break off fragments—they can only bear away what falls
on them. This is the other extreme. But in the case of ordinary glaciers—
ice streams—the boulders of the terminal deposit are mixed; the angular or
upper-formed predominating in the small existing gliciers of temperate cli-
mates, but the rounded, or nether-formed, greatly predominating in the grand
old glaciers of which we have been speaking. In the terminal deposits of
these, especially in the materials pushed into the lake, itis somewhat difficult
to find a boulder which has not been subjected to severe attrition.

Professor John LeConte described two new pieces of appar-
atus lately added to that of the University, one for projecting
microscopic objects, and the other for measuring the force of
electric currents.

Dr. Kellogg read a paper on Hops.

Resolutions expressive of interest in the affairs of the Univer-
sity, and satisfaction at the advancment made, were adopted.

President Gilman then addressed the members, after which
the Academy adjourned to examine the buildings and grounds.

VOL. Vi.

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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 49

Reeutar Meertine, Marcu Ist, 1875.
Robert E. C. Stearns in the Chair.

Highteen members present.

The following names were submitted as candidates for mem-
bership: Alfred EK. Regensberger, Jas. B. Clifford and Charles
Frances.

Donations to the Museum: From Professor Davidson, specimen
of Mandarin Duck from Nagasaki, Japan. From Mrs. John
Torrence, specimens of Ostrea titan from San Luis Obispo Co.
From Captain S. P. Griffin of the Steamship ‘‘ City of Peking,”
specimens of eyeless eels (genus Petromyzen or Bellostoma?),
caught coiled around fishing line in seven fathoms of water, mud
bottom, in Fortesque Bay, Straits of Magellan, November 25,
1874; also intestinal worms found in the porpoise. Jas. Dean
presented three Indian pestles made of stone, and nine bone
bodkins or pins, from a large mound, covering two acres, and,
twenty-five feet deep, at Visitacion Valley, near San Bruno road;
also specimens of coals from Queen Charlotte’s Island; also coal
from Vancouver’s Island, and specimen of bog iron. HE. O.
McDevitt donated a large and choice assortment of New Zealand
minerals. From Mrs. J. J Greene, fossil, Tamiosona gigantea,
from Wild Horse Cafion, eight miles from Lowe’s station.

The Secretary read a paper by S. B. Christy, as follows:

Notes on a Meteor seen at Berkeley.
BY S. B. CHRISTY.

On the evening of December 9, 1874, as I was sitting in my room, I hap-
pened to have my attention called to something without, and while looking
from my window saw, what at first appeared to be the moon in her first quar-
ter, of about the same size, color and brilliancy, shining through a dim fog,
which latter was heavy enough to obscure all the lesser stars. As, however,

Proc. Cau. AcaD. Scr., Vol. VI.—4.

HO PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

it flashed over me in a second that the moon was not out at that time and
place, and as above all it was moving steadily downwards, and to the left, I
watched it with attention and noticed that it seemed to grow a little larger and
brighter, until finally, like a piece of burning paper, it seemed to flare up
suddenly with a reddish light, and go out in silence.

The next day but one, as Professor John LeConte had asked me to record
its appearance, as near as may be, I repaired to the same place at about the
same time as before, so as to have the conditions as near the same as before,
and with a transit took the bearings of its course as nearly as could be done
by such a rude means of approximation.

Bearingaticommencement 755 oe: 3 <<. spots wetness a aelele S. 83° E.
Bearing atienditer cis. - eee a ee sono. lon sean §. 81° E.
Altitude at commencement...... ............. =\6.6 A Nets a payee 35°
Altitud Grab ema: so e-4 cosas sso Seren ere) ores Fo) vena che eel ore Se oe AE A ate 25°

The duration, as near as I could judge, was one second. The date, Decem-
ber 9, 1874; 6:30 P. M.

Charles Wolcott Brooks read the following:

Report of Japanese Vessels wrecked in the North
Pacific Ocean, from the Earliest Records
to the Present Time.

BY CHARLES WOLCOTT BROOKS.

Every junk found adrift or stranded on the coast of North America, or on
the Hawaiian or adjacent islands, has on examination proved to be Japanese,
and no single instance of any Chinese vessel has ever been reported, nor is
any believed to have existed.

This may be explained by the existence of the Kuro Shiwo, literally ‘‘ black
stream,’’ a gulf stream of warm water, which sweeps northeasterly past Japan
toward the Kurile and Aleutian Islands, thence curving around and passing
south along the coast of Alaska, Oregon and California. This stream, it is
found, has swept these junks toward America at an average rate of fully
ten miles a day.

There also exists an ocean stream of cold water, emerging from the Arctic
Ocean, which sets south close in along the eastern coast of Asia. This fully
accounts for the absence of Chinese junks on the Pacific, as vessels disabled
off their coast would naturally drift southward.

A noticeable feature is the large number of disasters on the coast of Japan
in the month of January, during which season the strong northeast monsoons
blow the wrecks directly off shore into the Kuro Shiwo.

The climate of Japan is temperate, with the exception of the extreme north-
ern provinces, where intense cold prevails and where snow is abundant; and
the extreme southern provinces, whose climate is very warm.

About the year 1639 the Japanese Government ordered all junks to be built
with open sterns, and large square rudders, unfit for ocean navigation, hoping

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DRAWN BY CHARLES WOLCOTT BROOKS.

+ JAPANESE WRECKS.

OUTHINE MAP OF THE NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN,

Distribution of Disabled Japanese Junks by Winds and Currents; also Direction of: \o Kuro Shiwo, or Japanese Warm Streafth,

_—

Showing the

tidson, U. S. C. S.

the Observations and Investigations of Professor George |

as corrected h

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 5t

thereby to keep their people isolated within their own islands. Once forced
from the coast by stress of weather, these rudders are soon washed away,
when the vessels naturally fall off into the trough of the sea, and roll their
masts out. The number, of which no record exists, which have thus suftered
during the past nineteen centuries must be very large, probably many
thousand vessels.

Among Japanese mariners, the fear of being thus blown off their coast, has
been an ever-threatening danger; and the memory of such time-honored
accidents, is a common feature in the traditions of every seaport settlement
along the eastern coast of Japan. °

By the Government Census, taken in 1874, the total population of Japan
was 33,300,675 souls, and there were 22,670 registered sailing vessels of Jap-
anese style, (junks) of from 8 to 383 tons, engaged in the coasting trade.
The crews of ordinary trading junks average from eight to twelve men each.

In the sixteenth year of the reign of the Emperor Suizin, B. C. 81,
merchant ships and ships of war are first spoken of as built in Japan.

Under the Shogoon Iyémitsu, about 1639, edicts commanded the destruction
of all boats built upon‘any foreign model, and forbade the building of vessels
of any size or shape superior to. that of the present junk.

By the imperial decree of 1637, Japanese who had left their country and
been abroad, were not allowed to return, death being the penalty for traveling
abroad, studying foreign Janguages, introducing foreign customs, or believing
in Christianity.

The Empire of Japan is situated in the northwestern part of the Pacific
Ocean, and is composed of four large islands and of a great number of smaller
ones. It faces to the northwest the Kingdom of Corea, and is separated from
it by the Japan sea. To the northeast the archipelago of Chijima (Kurile
Islands) extends towards Kamschatka. At the southwest the Liu Kiu Islands
are situated opposite the Island of Formosa.

Its whole length, extending from one end to the other of the empire, meas-
ures more than 500 Ris (about 1225 English miles), and its breadth varies
from 20 to 60 Ris (about 734% to 146 English miles.) Its total area is 23,740
Square Ris.

The sources of information at command have been exceptionally good.
During seventeen years, in which I represented the Government of Japan at
this port, it has been my pleasure to devote much critical attention to the
subject of Japanese wrecks, picked up adrift in the North Pacific Ocean and
stranded upon the northwest coast of America and its various outlying
islands, and those of the chain extending from Hawaii towards Niphon.
Besides keeping a detailed record of all wrecks reported during this period, I
have also collected and verified many cases of earlier reports, which although
still extant, were likely to be overlooked.

In at least 37 of the cases quoted, I have either seen the saved, or received
a personal account from those who were themselves witnesses. Hawaiian
and Japanese traditions I have myself gathered in those countries.

In March, 1860, I took an Indian boy on board the Japanese steam corvette
Kanrin-maru, where a comparison of Coast-Indian and pure Japanese words
was made at my request, by Fukuzawa Ukitchy, then Admiral’s Secretary:

ip PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

the result of which I prepared for the press, and it was at that time published
in the Evening Bulletin, suggesting further linguistic investigation.

The following examples submitted for consideration to the Academy, fairly
illustrate the subject in its various phases :—

1. In Mr. Hubert H. Bancroft’s unparalleled collection of ancient books
and valuable manuscripts relating to the early history of the native races of
the Pacific States, mention is made of several Japanese vessels reported in
some of the Spanish-American ports on the Pacific. In 1617 a Japanese junk
belonging to Magomé, was at Acapulco.

In 1613, June 10th, the British ship Clove, Capt. John Saris, arrived at
Nagasaki, having on board one Japanese, picked up from the island of
Bantam.

2. ‘‘In 1685,” we read, ‘‘ the Portuguese tried for the last time to re-es-
tablish their trade by sending back a number of shipwrecked Japanese,
picked up adrift, to their own country. The Japanese did not molest them,
but strictly prohibited their re-appearance on the Coast of Japan.”’

3. In 1694, a Japanese junk from Osaka was driven by adverse winds
and weather and stranded on the coast of Kamschatka, at the mouth of the
river Opala, on the south of Bolschaia Reka. The only survivor was after-
wards taken to Moscow.

Muller, in his ‘“‘ Voyages from Asia to America,’’ published in 1761, re-
marks that when in 1696 the Russians reported the above, they said: ‘‘ we
have learned of several other instances of Japanese wrecks previously strand-
ed on the coast of Kamschatka.”’

4, In 1710, a Japanese junk was stranded on the coast of Kamschatka, in
Kaligirian bay, north of Awatscha. Ten persons landed safely, of which four
were killed and six taken captive in an encounter with Kamschadels. Subse-
quently four of the captives fell into Russian hands, and one named Sanima,
was sent in 1714 to St. Petersburg.

5. On the 8th of July, 1729, a Japanese junk called the Waka-shima of
Satsuma, in distress, after having been driven about at sea for six months,
was finally stranded on the coast of Kamschatka, south of Awatscha bay, and
17 of her crew were saved. She was loaded with cotton and silk stuffs,
rice and paper; the two latter articles shipped by Matsudaira Osumi-no-kami,
(Prince of Satsuma) were government property.

A petty Russian officer named Schtinnikow, desiring to plunder the cargo,
had fifteen of the survivors shot; for which crime he was subsequently con-
demned and hung. The two remaining, an old merchant named Sosa and a
young pilot Gonsa, were sent to Irkutz in 1721, and thence via Tobolsk, they
reached St. Petersburg in 1732, where one died in 1736, the other in 1739.

6. In 1782 a Japanese junk was wrecked upon the Aleutian Islands, from
which the survivors were taken in one of the Russian-American Com-
pany’s vessels to the town of Ochotsk, and thence to the inland city of Ir-
kutsk. In 1792, the Governor-General of Siberia ordered the transport Cath-
erine, then at Ochotsk, to return these men to their native country. The
Russian vessel, after wintering in a harbor at the north end of Yeso, pro-
ceeded to the port of Hakodaté, where the Japanese officials politely but

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 53

firmly refused to allow their countrymen to land. They were subsequently
returned to Siberia. ,

7. Among items of history mentioned in Japanese records, I find that in
October, 1804, a Russian frigate commanded by Capt. Krusenstern, conveying
Count Resanoff, as Ambassador of the Czar, brought back to Nagasaki five
Japanese seamen, being part of a crew of fifteen rescued from a stranded junk;
the other ten preferred to remain in Siberia.

8. In 1805, a Japanese junk was wrecked on the coast of Alaska, near
Sitka; the seamen were quartered on Japonski Island, whence they were
taken by the Russians, and finally landed on the Coast of Yeso in 1806.

9. In 1812, Capt. Ricord, commanding the Russian sloop-of-war Diana,
took seven Japanese, six of whom were seamen recently shipwrecked in a
junk on the coast of Kamschatka, in the hope of exchanging them for seven
captive Kussians, confined in Japan. Being unable to land, they were
returned to Kamschatka, reaching there October 12th. The Diana made a
second attempt, and finally succeeded August 16th, 1813, in landing these
Japanese at Kunashie Bay, the 20th Kurile, and effected the liberty of the
Russian Capt. Golownin and his associates.

10. In 1813, the Brig Forrester, Captain John Jennings, when in latitude
49° N., longitude 128° W., rescued the captain and two seaman from a dis-
masted junk, timber laden, when 18 months from Yeso, bound to Niphon.
Thirty-five men were on board, of whom thirty-two died of hunger. They
were delivered to the Russians, who undertook to return them to Japan.

11. Captain Alexander Adams, formerly pilot at Honolulu, relates that
March 24, 1815, in latitude 32° 45° N., longitude 126° 57’ W., when sailing
master of brig Forrester, Captain Piggott, and cruising off Santa Barbara, Cal-
ifornia, he sighted at sunrise a Japanese junk drifting at the mercy of the
winds and waves. Her rudder and masts were gone. Although blowing a
gale, he boarded the junk, and found fourteen dead bodies in the hold, the
captain, carpenter, and one seaman alone surviving; took them on board,
where by careful nursing they were well in a few days. They were on a voy-
age from Osaka to Yedo, and were 17 months out, having been dismasted in
consequence of losing their rudder.

12. In 1820, a junk was cast upon Point Adams, the southern shore of the
mouth of Coluinbia river. The vessel, which was laden with wax, went to
pieces, and the crew, many in number, landed safely.

13. A junk was wrecked on Queen Charlotte’s Island, in 1831.

14. December 23, 1832, at mid-day, a junk in distress cast anchor near the
harbor of Waialua, on the shores of Oahu. She was from a southern port of
Japan, bound to Yedo with a cargo of fish; lost her rudder and was dismasted
in a gale, since which she had drifted for eleven months. Five out of her
crew of nine had died. December 30th, she started for Honolulu, but was
stranded on a reef off Barber’s Point on the evening of January 1, 1833.

The four survivors were taken to Honolulu, where, after remaining eigh-
teen months, they were forwarded to Kamschatka, whence they hoped to
work their way south through the northern islands of the group into their
own country. This junk was about 80 tons burden. According to the tra-

54 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

ditions of the islands, several such junks had been wrecked upon Hawaii,
before the islands were discovered by Captain Cook.

15,16. In 1833, a Japanese junk was wrecked on the coast of Washington
Territory, in the immediate vicinity of Cape Flattery. Many of her crew
had perished, and several dead bodies were found headed up in firkins, in
customary Japanese style, ready for burial. Out of 17 persons, the only
survivors, two men and a boy, were rescued from the Indians, by the Hudson
Bay Company’s vessel Lama, Captain McNeal, who took them to England,
touching at Honolulu on their way. Thence they proceeded to Canton,
where they arrived in 1836, and stopped with Karl Gutzlaff, who learned their
language, and intended accompanying them to Japan. In 1837, they left
Macao in the American brig Morrison, dispatched by Clarence A. King for
Yedo bay, to bear them home. Being tired upon, July 27, and prevented
from landing, she sailed for Kagosima, where, being equally unsuccessful,
she finally returned with the men to Macao. The Morrison, on whom Samuel
W. Williams and Dr. Peter Parker were passengers, also had on board four
other Japanese seamen, rescued from a disabled Japanese junk, which had
drifted a long time at sea, until finally stranded on the eastern shore of the
Philippine Islands, whence the survivors were forwarded to Macao, to be re-
turned to Japan.

17. In 1839, a wrecked junk was boarded by Captain Cathcart of the
American whale ship James Loper, drifting in latitude 30° N., longitude 174°
W., or about half way between Japan and the Hawaiian Islands.

18. In the Polynesian, October 17, 1840, published at Honolulu, I find:
‘* The Japanese who took passage in the Harlequin remained at Kamschatka
under the protection of the Governor awaiting an opportunity of returning to
their native country.”

Nore.—In 1834, the brig Harlequin conveyed to Petropaulski from Hon-
olulu 18 Japanese taken from wrecks, who had remained 18 months at Hon-
olulu. They were finally returned to Japan by Russian officials.

In 1840, Mr. Nathaniel Savory, a native of Massachusetts, residing at Port
Lloyd, Bonin Islands, reports a Japanese junk of about 40 tons, laden with
dried fish, entered that harbor in distress, having been driven from her course
along the coast of Japan through stress of weather, with her provisions ex-
hausted. They repaired the damage to the junk during that winter, and she
sailed in the spring for Japan. Had these islands been uninhabited, this
case would have added another to the list of wrecks.

i9. In 1841, a fishing junk from the southeast part of Niphon was wrecked
on an uninhabited island, where the three survivors remained six months,
until taken off by Captain Whitfield, master of the American whale ship John
Howland, and brought to Honolulu, where Denzo and Goémon remained,
while Nakahama Manjiro went to the United States, and was educated by
Captain Whitfield. After being there several years he returned to Honolulu
where he found his former companions, and embarked January, 1851, on the
Sarah Boyd, Captain Whitmore, bound for Shanghai, taking with them a
whale-boat called the Adventure, with a full rig and outfit. When off the
Grand Liu-Kiu, the three Japanese effected a landing and the ship proceeded
without stopping. Hence they finally reached Kiushiu and Nagasaki, in the

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 55

junk which bears the annual tribute money from Liu-Kiu to Japan. Man-
jiro afterwards translated Bowditch’s Navigator into Japanese, and visited
San Francisco as sailing-master of the Japanese steam corvette Kanrin-maru,
which arrived there March 17th, 1860.

20. In 1845, the United States Frigate St. Louis took from Mexico to Ning-
po, in China, three shipwreck Japanese, being survivors of the crew of a junk
which had drifted from the coast of Japan, entirely across the Pacific Ocean,
and finally stranded on the coast of Mexico, where they remained two years.
The Chinese authorities were willing to receive these men and return them to
their native country by their annual junk, which sails from Cheefoo to Naga-
saki; but the Japanese objected to their landing, owing to the law of 1637.

In 1845, the Japanese authorities informed Sir Edward Belcher, command-
ing H.B.S. Samarang, that they would not receive returned Japanese from
abroad, but ‘‘ had sent a junk-full back to the Emperor of China,’’ to whose
country they had gone to obtain return passages by the annual junk permitted
from Cheefoo to Nagasaki. The above leads to the inference that the
Samarang may have had shipwrecked Japanese seamen on board.

21. In 1845, April lst, Captain Mercator Cooper, of Sag Harbor, when in
the American whale ship Manhattan, rescued eleven shipwrecked Japanese
mariners from St. Peters, a small island lying a few degrees southeast of Nip-
hon, and took them to Yedo Bay, where they were received under exception.
Captain Cooper is also reported to have fallen in with a sinking junk, from
which he rescued as many more Japanese seamen. [See Dr. C. F. Winslow’s
account in Friend of February 2d, 1846. ]

22. In 1847, a French whaleship while cruising off Stapleton Island,
sighted a fire-signal on the shore, and sent a boat to the relief of five Japanese
sailors, who were in a helpless plight; the only survivors of a crew, whose dis-
abled junk lay stranded on the beach of asmall bay. Later, about 1853, a
party of officers from the U. S. steam frigate Susquehanna landed and sur-
veyed this wreck, which they then described as ‘‘ still partly kept together by
large nails of copper, and portions of sheets of metal. Her planks, fastened
together at the edge, were but little rubbed or decayed.”’

23. In 1847, April 21st, the Bremen ship Otaheite, Captain Weitung, when
in lat. 35° N., long. 156° E., fellin with a Japanese junk in distress, which
had lost her rudder and had been driven off the coast of Japan in a gale No-
vember, 1846, and had drifted five months. Took off the crew, consisting of
nine men, also six tons of wax. She was about 80 tons burden and chiefly lad-
en with paper belonging to Osaka, and bound north. Captain Weitung kept
them on board four weeks, and May 19th, 1847, put them on board a junk in
the Straits of Matsmai. [See Polynesian, October 17, 1847, and Friend, Dec-
ember 2, 1847.]

24. In 1848, Captain Cox of New London, Conn., picked up fifteen of
twenty Japanese seamen from a disabled junk in lat. 40° N., long. 170° W.,
and kept them on board six months during a cruise in the Ochotsk sea, and
finally landed them at Lahaina, where they remained six or eight months.

25. In 1850, during the autumn, S. Sentharo, Toro and J. Heco—the lat-
ter then aged 13 yeays—left Osaka in a junk for Yedo. After discharging
and reloading they started to return via Woragawa. After leaving the latter

56 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

place their rudder was disabled and they lost their mast and drifted out to
sea. Fifty days later the wreck was fallen in with by the American bark Auk-
land, Captain Jennings, who took off and brought the crew of 17 persons to
San Francisco, in February, 1851. They were quartered on board the U. 8S.
revenue cutter, and cared for by order of the Collector of the Port. Our citi-
zens generally took much interest in them. The Japanese were subsequently
embarked on the U. S. sloop St. Mary's and conveyed to Hongkong, where
15 were transferred to the U. S. steamer Susquehanna to await the arrival of
Commodore Perry and his expedition. Heco and the second mate, Toro, re-
turned to San Francisco on the bark Sarah Hooper, reaching there in the
autumn of 1852. Sentharo returned with Rev. Mr. Goble, from San Fran-
cisco to Japan, and also Toro returned in the American bark Melita to Hako-
daté from San Francisco, via Honolulu, April 19, 1859.

Toro was for a while clerk with Wells, Fargo & Co., and Joseph Heco,
clerk with Macondray & Co. Heco was subsequently appointed for duty on
the United States Surveying Schooner Fennimore Cooper, about 1858-59, and
left her at Honolulu, on account of sickness, but finally returned to Yedo, on
the United States steamer Mississippi. [See Evening Bulletin, June, 1862. ]

26. In 1850, April 22d, in lat. 45° N. long. 155° E., the American whale
ship Henry Kneeland, Clark, master, fell in with a Japanese junk having 13
persons on board. The vessel left Yedo for Kuno, but lost her rudder and
was dismasted; then drifted to sea, and had been at the mercy of the winds
and currents for sixty-six days, during forty of which they had subsisted on
fish and snow water. The Captain and two seamen came to Honolulu on the
H. K.; two of the crew were transferred to the Marengo; six were taken to
Petropaulski and taken charge of by the Russian authorities, and two came
to Honolulu by the Nimrod. [See Friend, October 15, 1850; also Friend,
November 1, 1850. ]

Notrr.—In 1851, by Japanese records I find that five Japanese seamen from
Honolulu via China arrived at Nagasaki—probably the above.

27. In 1851, a Japanese junk was cast away upon Atka Island, and only
three of the crew survived.

28. In 1852, April 15th, in lat. 31° N., long. 150° E., about 300 miles N.
N. E. of Guam, Captain West, in the American whaleship Jsaac Howland,
fellin with a small Japanese junk in ballast. The four men on board had
but a little oil to sustain life, and were much emaciated. Their tiller was
lashed, and the vessel having been forty-nine days out of their reckoning, the
crew had given themselves up to die. Two of these men Captain West took
to the Atlantic States, and two were transferred to an American whaler about
to cruise in the vicinity of the Japanese Islands.

29. In March, 1853, the American ship John Gilpin, Captain Doane, passed
a water-logged wreck of a junk, her deck awash with the water, in lat. 18°
—’'N., long. 145° —’ E., just beyond Pagan and Grigan Islands. Large
numbers of fish were around the wreck. There were no survivors on board.
She had every appearance of having been a very long time in the water.

30. In 1853, Captain C. M. Scammon discovered the wreck of a Japanese
junk, on the southwest or largest of the San Bonito group of Islands, off

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. BT

Lower California, in lat. 289 N., long, 116° W., and near Cedros Island. [See
Alta, April 22, 1860.]

Her planks were fastened together on the edges with spikes or bolts of a flat
shape, with all of the head on one side. The seams were not quite straight,
although the workmanship otherwise was good. That portion of the wreck in
sight, was principally the bottom of the vessel, and gave evidence of having
been a long time on shore. [Extract from Captain Scammon’s log.]

31. In 1854, August 14th, just after Commodore Perry’s departure, the
American ship Lady Pierce, Captain Burrows, arrived at Simoda from San
Francisco via Honolulu June 2, 1854. She returned Diyonoské to Japan, who
was the sole survivor of a crew of fifteen men, and was picked off from a
drifting junk near the Hawaiian Islands, after being seven months helpless
at sea. He had resided some time in San Francisco.

32. In 1855, “aptain Brooks, in American brig Leverett, which arrived here
from Ayan, Siberia, November 29th, picked up an abandoned junk in lat. 420
N., long. 170° W., about 900 miles from the American Coast.

33. In 1856, the American bark Messenger Bird, Captain Homer, reported
a disabled junk at Guam, Ladrone Islands.

34. In 1856, Captain Jno. C. Lawton, in the brig Prince de Joinville, while
getting guano at Cedros and adjacent islands, reported a Japanese wreck, seen
near Magdalena Bay.

35. In 1858, the U.S. surveying schooner Fennimore Cooper, Lieut. John
M. Brooke, U.S.N. commanding, sailed from Honolulu for a cruise along the
chain of islands extending thence towards Japan. He had on board a Japan-
ese seaman named Marsa-Kitchi, whom he landed at Kanagawa. The junk
from which this man was taken, was disabled at sea while engaged in the
coasting trade, and her crew were forced to put her before the wind, heading
to the eastward, a direction in which they were forced against their will. To
prevent drifting too rapidly, they lowered their anchor in the open sea to act
as a drag, paying out their full length of cable, and thus allowed it to remain
until it finally parted.

36. In 1858, May 19th, the British ship Caribean, when in lat. 48° 40’ N;,
long. 171° E., about 1,600 miles from the coast of Japan, fell in with a dis-
masted junk, which had carried away her rudder, and had been about five
months floating helplessly at sea. The captain, mate and ten seamen were
rescued and brought to San Francisco, where they arrived June 7, 1858.
They were cared for by Captain Winchester, who took them in the Caribean
to Vancouver Island, whence he was bound for China, bnt having met a Brit-
ish war vessel off Japan, the rescued men were transferred to her, and thus
landed at a Japanese port.

The junk was loaded with barley and rice, and barnacles two feet long were
reported found upon the wreck.

The British Government presented £400 to Captain Winchester as areward
and in reimbursement of his necessary outlays.

37. In 1859, the bark Gambia, Captain Brooks, found the remains of a
Japanese junk on Ocean Island, lat. 28° 24’ N., long. 178° 21’ W.

38, 39. In 1859, July 4th, the remains of two stranded junks, with lower

58 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

masts high on the beach, were found on the east or lagoon side of Brooks
Island, lat. 28011’ N. long. 1779 18’ to 25’ W.

40. May 11th, 1862, the bark Yankee, Captain Claxton, passed in lat. 25°
39’ N., long. 138° 24° W., a wreck with the stump of one mast oniy standing,
of which the wood was quite black with age. The junk was water-logged,
and the sea washing entirely over her. Being satisfied there was no life upon
her, and a heavy sea running, did not board; passed her three-quarters of a
mile to windward, and the Yankee kept on her course.

41. In 1862, a Japanese junk was stranded in September near Attu. They
had drifted in distress for 90 days, and out of a crew of twelve only three sur-
vived.. These were taken in 1863 to Nicolaefsky, Amoor river, and then re-
turned to Hakodaté by a Russian war vessel.

42. In 1862, May 4th, the ship Victor, Captain Crowell, arrived at San
Francisco, with the captain, officers and crew, eleven in number, of the Jap-
anese junk Jo-maru, from Kanagawa, December 21, 1861, for Owari and
Hiogo. On January 5, 1862, was disabled and drifted fromland. Was about
three months at the mercy of winds and currents, until picked up April 13th,
1862, in lat. 33° N., long. 1619 26’ E., by the Victor. They were cared for
by Mr. Brooks, Japanese Consul, and by him returned to Japan, in the
American schooner Caroline E. Foote, for Hakodaté.

43. A Japanese junk drifted past Baker’s Island, lat. 0° 13’ N., long. 176°
22’ W., some time in 1863. Boats were sent out and towed it on to the
beach. There were four Japanese bodies on board; all were dead.

44, In 1864, February 4th, on Providence Island, lat. 9° 52’ N., long. 160°
65’ E., on the Lagoon shore of the island was seen the portions of a vessel
which had been many years a wreck. Scattered along the outer shore were
many redwood logs, some of them of great size.

45. In April, 1869, an abandoned junk was stranded on Adakh, one of the
Aleutian Isles.

46. In 1870, in October, the San Salvador ship Louisa Canovera, Captain
Demoro, when in lat. 37°46’ N., and long. 158° 10’ E., fell in with a dis-
masted junk, laden with rice, having four dead bodies on board, and no living
persons. The papers and effects were taken and delivered to the Japanese
Consul at San Franesico, and by him returned to Japan, November, 1870.

47, 48, 49. In July, 1871, the old chief at Attu Island, aged 70 years, re-’
ported that three Japanese junks had been lost upon the surrounding islets,
during his recollection, besides one stranded not far from the harbor of that
island in 1862.

+50. In 1871, February 2d, in lat. 33945’ N., long. 1419 31° E., about 150
miles from the coast of Japan, the American ship Annie M. Smull, Captain
Packer, fellin with the Japanese junk Sumi-yoshi-maru, of Kiushiu, and
rescued the Captain and three surviving seamen, and landed them at San
Francisco, February 24, 1871. They sailed from Shiroko, province of Ise,
January 17, 1871, for Dai Osaki, with a cargo of wood. Two days later they
were disabled, and drifted to sea, and were picked up seventeen days later.

51. In 1871, May 23d, in lat. 34° 54’ N., long. 143° 32’ E., Pacific Mail
steamship China, Captain Cobb, rescued five Japanese seamen from the dis-
abled junk Sumi-ayee-maru, of Kobe. Eleven out of sixteen originally on

ACADEMY OF SCIENCEs. 59

board died upon the wreck, and the captain of the junk died on the steamer
after being rescued. They were cared for by Mr. Brooks, who returned them
to Yokohama, July 1, 1571, and the government presented suitable rewards.

52. In 1871, the Japanese junk Jinko-maru, of Matsaka, of 180 kokus
measurement, encountered a severe gale January 18, 1871, while going from
Isé to Kumano, during which she lost her rudder, and while in danger of
foundering cut away her masts. The junk drifted from the coast of Japan in
the Kuro Shiwo for 2,500 miles in a helpless condition, her crew keeping a fire
and living on rice, and fish they speared, until they drifted on the rocks at
Atka, July 10th, 1871, where, by means of ropes, the three men on board
landed safely. There they remained until September 19th, 1871, when they
took passage by schooner H. M. Hutchinson for Ounalaska and San Francisco,
whence they were returned to Japan by the Consul.

53. In 1873, Captain W. B. Cobb, in steamer China, rescued the crew
from a wrecked junk in lat. —O—’ N., long. —OC —’ E., and landed them at
Yokohama, in acknowledgment for which the usual present was made him by
the Japanese government.

54, A junk has been reported as stranded on the coast of Alaska.

55. A junk was cast upon the windward side of Kauaii, one of the Hawa-
jian Islands, and the survivors landed at Hanalei harbor.

56. An old resident of Petropaulski informed me there was a Japanese
junk stranded below that harbor, previous to 1812, where many years since
the wreck still remained. Six of the crew survived.

57. A Japanese wreck was sighted adrift below San Diego. Reported in
the Alta.

58. A junk was wrecked at Nootka Sound.

59. In 1875, April 6th, in lat. 38° 02'N., long. 164° 38’ E., American ship
Game Cock, Capt. T. C. Stoddard, fell in with the Japanese junk Woonohi-
maru, of about 80 tons, dismasted, with her stern stove and rudder gone,
and generally in a helpless condition, and rescued theretrom twelve Japanese
seamen, The junk was bound from Hakodaté to Tokio, with a cargo of salt
fish and sea-weed, when on December 3d they were blown off shore ina
severe gale. December 10th they again made the land, when another heavy
gale commenced and blew the junk off again. December 19th was forced to
cut away the mast to save the hull. December 22d raised a jury mast and
got under way, sailing towards Japan whenever the wind permitted; at other
times took in sail and drifted. By their reckoning, they estimate having
thus sailed 1500 miles west, principally with northeast winds, when, April
5th, in a bad sea, they carried away rudder, and soon after stove stern. At
8 a.m. the following day, they abandoned the wreck, from which they were
rescued by the Game Cock, and landed at San Francisco April 28th, and were
returned to Japan by Mr. Takaki May 1st, per Great Republic. For the rescue
and kind treatment of these men, the Japanese Government presented Capt.
Stoddard with a gold chronometer watch through His Excellency Yoshida
Kiyonari, their Minister at Washington.

60. In 1876, July 3d, in lat. 37° 10’ N., long. 167° 35° E., British barque
Abby Cowper, Capt. Nelson, fell in with the Japanese junk Koki-maru, of
Otaru, island of Yeso, of 477 kokus government measurement, equivalent to

60 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

about 120 tons. The junk was dismasted and floating in a helpless condition.
Sakaki-bara Katsubé, mate, and Tomokitchi, sailor, the only survivors of 12
men, were rescued from the wreck, and made the following statement, which
is very interesting as anillustration of many doubtless similar struggles. In
October, 1875, the junk loaded at Shari and Abashiri, on the northern
coast of the island of Yeso, with salted salmon and preserved roe of salmon,
Left latter place November 5th, and touched at Hakodaté, whence they sailed
December 6th for Tokio, Niphon. On the 9th, when on the east coast of
Japan between lat. 39° and 40° N., and about long. 142° E.. a severe westerly
gale was encountered. December 12th carried away mainmast. Afterwards
got it in and fished it with a piece of the main yard. On the 18th carried that
mast away, and the yard was washed overboard. A sea soon after disabled
the rudder, which was unshipped and taken in, the vessel in the meantime
making water freely. To lighten her, 300 kokus of cargo (nearly two-thirds),
was thrown overboard. From this time the vessel floated helplessly.

Early in January, 1876, fresh water gave out, and all the rainwater possible
was saved and used. Then three seamen were taken down with the scurvy,
which soon appeared amony the balance. Towards the close of January, fire-
wood gave out, but a small nucleus of fire was preservedin astove. Asalast
resort, the junk’s boat was broken up for firewood. All hands subsisting on
a little rice cooked in rain water, and principally on salt fish, with a very
small allowance of water. February 5th Chojero died—the first death.
March 9th, Capt. Sato Sangoro died; then followed Kitsaburo, April 16th;
Bunkichi, 21st; Kizo, 24th; Renkitchi, May 2d; Skedjero, 2d; Taské, 2d;
Heihichi, 14th, and finally, Matsutaro, June 10th. The two survivors, anti-
cipating a similar death, lingered until the forenoon of July 3d, when they
sighted a vessel, had strength enough to raise a signal, and were rescued.
They caught rain May 24th, after nearly all had died, which largely assisted
in preserving the survivors. They also caught fifteen large fresh fish called
bonita. Before the captain died, he wrote and handed to the mate letters to
his family and owners, describing all details. The two survivors, expecting
death themselves, boxed these up, with the ship’s papers, and fastened them
in a conspicuous place, whence they were taken and preserved. After the
death of each person, the survivors enclosed their bodies in a Japanese coffin
suitably inscribed, and stowed them in the hold of the junk, hoping they
might reach some land an? receive burial. The survivors reached San
Francisco August 15th, 1876, and after recuperating, were returned to Japan
by Mr. Takaki.*

Many more might easily be added, but these suffice to establish many facts
valuable to science.

The annual rainfall of Japan averages 70.33 inches, occurring on 197.7
days, two-1hirds of which falls between April and October; at Tokio the ther-
mometer varies from a monthly maximum of 91° Faht. in August, to a min-
imum of 20° in January, averaying 58° 22 for the year, and averages 48° 33
at Hakodaté, where the average number of hard gales per annum is 16.79.
[See Kaitakushi Reports and Tables, Tokio, 1875. ]

*_Note.—These last two cases haye been submitted by Mr. Brooks as additions to the
list for publication since the reading of this paper.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 61

The presence of wrecks so far south near the equator, indicates that they
had been swept northward from Japan by the Kuro Shiwo, and thence south-
ward along the northwest coast of America until they fell into the equatorial
westerly current, where, in company with redwood logs, and drift-wood from
Oregon, they must have reached these islands in the equatorial belt.

In illustration of this equatorial current, we have the report of residents of
Christmas Island, which speaks of a westerly current setting past that island
at the rate of one and a-half to two miles an hour. August 23d, 1861, there
was picked up on the shore of the island of Niihau, in latitude 21° 50’ N.,
longitude 160° 15’ W.., a bottle containing a paper, thrown from the American
ship White Swallow, thrown overboard July 21st, 1861, in latitude 21° 30’ N.,
longitude 151° 55’ W. It had made a nearly due west drift of 460 miles in
about thirty-three days. This shows the existence of a very powerful westerly
current around the Hawaiian Islands of about 14 miles per diem.

In 1862, September 10th, an enormous Oregon tree about 150 feet in length
and fully six feetin diameter above the butt, drifted past the island of Mauii,
Hawaiian Islands. The roots, which rose ten feet out of water, would span
about 25 feet. Two branches rose perpendicularly 20 to 25 feet. Several tons
of clayish earth were embedded among its roots. Many saw-logs and pieces
of drift-wood- came ashore in this vicinity about this time. These were
evidently portions of the immense body of ship-timber launched upon the
Pacific during the great flood of the previous winter along the American coast.
Their almost simultaneous arrival at Mauii in September, seems to indicate
quite accurately the force and direction of the currents in this ocean.
Supposing them to have come from the Columbia River, leaving say February
18th, 1862, and to have drifted 2,800 miles, they must have drifted at an
average rate of 14 miles per day to have reached Mauii September 10th.

We may argue from the above that there were other ways of explaining the
similarity of flora upon many islands of the Pacific and the high terraces of
our Sierra Nevada mountains, beside the hypothesis of an intervening conti-
nent where the broad Pacific now rests.

There is a strong presumption that the present bed of the Pacific Ocean may
once have been an extended valley, submerged by some abrupt and spasmodic
catastrophe, at a period when the fiery interior of the earth was in a state of
inconceivable agitation, and its equilibrium temporarily disturbed. Abundant
ruptures of the entire combined strata of its crust along our mountain ranges,
bear indisputable evidence, in prominences tilted up and raised to immense
heights: conditions which must have necessitated corresponding depressions,
and consequently established new beds for water, forming new islands,
re-dividing and re-shaping continents. The existing shore lines of enormous
empty basins, the pebble and cobble stones rounded by erotion, at present in
the centre of this continent west of the Rocky Mountains, all contribute
testimony of some great change.

The spores or seeds of plants may, however, have been more recently
transferred by clinging to the earth around the roots of such mammoth trees
as floated from the high latitudes of the northwest coast of America. Once
cast upon any island and rooted, they would soon replant and extend them-
selves. Driftwood from Columbia River and Puget Sound distributed itself

62 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

throughout the North Pacific, and the windward shores of the Hawaiian
Islands are literally lined with it, as well as with redwood logs of formidable
size,

Small parties of male Japanese have repeatedly reached the American
continent by sea, cast upon its shores after floating helplessly for months.
Until recently, the survivors must have remained permanently near where
they landed, and naturally uniting with women of the native races, have left
descendents more or less impressed with their physical peculiarities. Such a
slow, limited, but constant infusion of Japanese blood, almost entirely from
male seamen, was undoubtedly sufficient to modify the original stock of all
coast tribes along our north-western shore. No marks exist of any immigra-
tion en masse, neither is there any present record of any Japanese woman
saved from such a wreck, although cases may formerly have occurred, but
must have been very rare. These unfortunate seamen, often illiterate, and
separated from their sources of learning, necessarily lost their own language;
but in doing so, doubtless contributed many isolated words to the Indian
dialects of this coast. Many shipwrecked Japanese have informed me that
they were enabled to communicate with and understand the natives of Atka
and Adakh Islands. Quite an infusion of Japanese words is found among
some of the coast tribes of Oregon and California, either pure, as tsche-tsche,
milk, or clipped, as hiaku, speed, found reduced to hyack, meaning fast, in
Indian; or yaku, evil genius in Japanese, similarly reduced to yak, devil, by
the Indians. In almost all words showing such similarity, the Indian word is
always an abbreviated word, or shorter word than the Japanese, from which
it may be argued that the latter was the original and the former derived. The
construction of the two languages is, however, different. There are, however,
a large number of pure Japanese words and some very peculiar Japanese
‘‘idioms, constructions, honorific, separative, and agglutinative particles ”’
found nearly identical in the American-Indian dialect. Shipwrecked Japan-
ese are invariably enabled to communicate understandingly with the coast
Indians, although speaking quite a different language. The great mass of
the Japanese people stoutly disclaim any common descent with the Chinese,
and firmly believe they have a wholly different origin. Any common ancestor
must certainly have been in very remote ages.

Professor George Davidson, in charge of the United States Coast Survey
on the Pacific, our highest authority upon questions connected with the
great ocean currents of this ocean, has bestowed much critical study upon
the physical conditions connected with the Kuro Shiwo. In 1851, when sta-
tioned at the mouth of the Columbia river, he began the interesting investi-
gations necessary to demonstrate its complete outline.

In 1868, he communicated to the National Academy of Science his deduc-
tions establishing the existence of the return current northwestward, westward
and southwestward along the shores of the Gulf of Alaska, and the southern
coast of the Aleutian Islands, whilst the great body of the current is deflected
down the northward coast until it is drawn into the Great Equatorial Current
which moves westward until it strikes the Asiatic barrier, and thence starts
on its course, about the island of Formosa, as the great warm stream of Japan.
He first showed the striking analogy between this stream and that of the

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 63

North Atlantic, especially in their origin at latitude 23°, their being nearly
180 degrees of longitude apart, their general course, etc., etc.

There is a branch of the Kuro Shiwo, which shoots off northward near
Kamschatka, and is felt 50 or 100 miles off this promontory; whilst close in
shore, a cold current flows southward from the Arctic through the western
part of Behring’s Straits. On Kamschatka, the Kurile and Aleutian Islands,
and on Alaska, great number of disabled Japanese junks must have been
stranded in past centuries.

Professor Davidson, who has had occasion to examine the Spanish, Eng-
lish, Russian and American records of discoveries in this ocean, assures me
that he has found mention of at least a dozen or more junks, wrecked on the
coasts of Kamschatka, within a comparatively recent period; and in the earlier
descriptions of the Kurile Islands, and of the Kamschatka Peninsula, he
says frequent mention is made of the wrecks of Japanese junks upon these
coasts.

Both winds and currents of the North Pacific assist in driving disabled
Japanese junks around the great circle of the Kuro Shiwo. A junk disabled
in the latitude of Tokio would be swept by alternate southwest and northwest
winds, and the existing northeasterly current, towards the northwest coast of
America. The distance from Cape King to San Francisco is about 4,500
nautical miles. We have here abundant proof of the track taken by these
disabled vessels, by a study of their positions when found drifting at seain the
Pacific, at the mercy of winds and waves.

For many, many centuries the coasting trade of Japan has employed alarge
fleet of junks in exchanging rice from their southern, for salt fish from their
northern ports. Although it may be presumed that the large number of
their vessels thus disabled and rendered unmanageable, undoubtedly founder
in the heavy gales they experience; yet comparatively large numbers having
cargoes suitable for food, and crossing a region subject to much rain, which
is easily caught, are enabled to sustain life until either picked up, or stranded
somewhere on the American coast, or some island in their course.

In the above sixty cases enumerated, there were, from 1613 to 1694, four
cases; from 1710 to 1782, three cases; 1804 to 1820, six cases; 1831 to 1848,
eleven cases; and since the rapid settlement of this coast in 1850 to 1876, only
28 years, we have a list of 36 wrecks reported. This apparent increase is not
owing to their increased number, but solely to the fact, that increase of com-
merce on the Pacific has distributed there a large fleet, whose presence has
materially increased the chances of rescue to disabled vessels, and the likeli-
hood of receiving reports from stranded wrecks.

In addition to the list we have enumerated, are the Hawaiian traditions that
several such junks were wrecked on Hawaii before the year 1778; to which
add the wrecks from which the 18 Japanese were returned from Honolulu in
1834, also those from which came the junk full of shipwreck Japanese, who
attempted to, and failed in returning, by Cheefoo to Nagasaki; also the dozen
additional ones, alluded to by Professor Davidson, as stranded on the penin-
sula of Kamschatka, within a comparatively recent period; and the frequent
mention of similar wrecks on the Kurile Islands. These all taken together,
with yet others not fully verified, could scarcely have been less than forty

64 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

more, rendering it reasonable to suppose that fully one hundred wrecked Jap-
anese junks, have been heard from, in one way or another, adrift upon the
North Pacific, or stranded on the northwest coast of America or some outly-
ing islands.

In answer to the question of whether any of these waifs have ever found
their way back to Japan from the American coast. in early times, I can say,
that from historical data still extant, and from the personal relations of de-
scendauts of some of such returned voyagers, I have learned that in rare
cases, occurring from 400 to 260 years ago, crews actually reached Japan with
tidings of the American coast; and Professor Davidson informs me, that when
recently in Japan observing the Transit of Venus, a very intelligent Japanese
scholar, well known to me personally, related to him a well authenticated case
within this century, Formerly such accounts were not allowed general pub-
licity, because stoutly discountenanced by an ecclesiastical government, to
whom such discoveries were quite as repugnant as were Galileo’s to the me-
dieval government of Rome. To the peaceful masses, the confines of their
archipelago, were but recently the horizon of the world.

The famous voyage of the Buddhist priest from China, at the beginning of
the seventh century, to a country called by him Fusang, (meaning, translated
“*to aid or cultivating mulberries,’’) was at the exact period when Japanese
historians record their first official intercourse with China; and was probably
reached by a coasting voyage along the western coast of Corea, thence along
the northern coast of Niphon, around Yeso, and southerly, to the southeastern
shore of Niplron, where mulberry trees were then cultivated abundantly, and
which was undoubtedly the land he called Fusang. A careful study of the
native records seems to indicate that his much mooted Chinese voyage could
not possibly have extended to the American coast.

Of the sixty cases here reported, 27 wrecks were encountered at sea, and
the balance stranded, as follows: On the Aleutian islands, 8; Coast of Kam-
schatka, 6; Alaska, Oregon, Hawaiian and Brooks Islands, two each; Off San
Diego, Acapulco, Nootka Sound, San Bonito, Queen Charlotte, Cedros, Prov-
idence, Baker’s, Stapleton, Ocean and Ladrone Islands, one each.

In 23 cases where the actual number on board was named, they aggregated
293 persons; an average of 12% persons to a junk; ranging from 3 to 35 in in-
dividual cases.

Where definite statistics of the saved are given, we find 222 persons saved
in 33 cases; an average of 6%4 persons in each disaster. On eight occasions,
three persons each were rescued; in four cases, one person; and on four other
cases, four persons; three times, eleven were saved; and twice each, 5, 12, 15,
17; and once each 2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 18, were saved.

By an examination of the above figures, we may estimate the probable ex-
tent of Japanese blood infused into the Indian tribes around the shores of the
North Pacific.

Fifteen vessels mention having drifted helplessly at sea an aggregate of 1064
months, averaging a little over seven months each.

Eleven cases report 122 deaths; averaging a little over eleven deaths to each
wreck.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 67

Early Migrations—Ancient Maritime Intercourse of West-
ern Nations before the Christian Era, Ethnologically
considered. and Chronologically arranged, Dllustrat-
ing Facilities for Migration among early types of
the human race.

BY CHARLES WOLCOTT BROOKS.

In all subdivisions of races, we are apt, at first, to look superficially upon
different nations as separate and complete types of humanity. The brief
synopsis here collected from ancient histories, clearly reveals the extent of
maritime intercourse, actually developed by western nations up to fully
4,000 years ago. By such statistics, acquired with sufficient details to trace
facilities for admixture, the inference fairly follows: that maritime nations of
Asia, including the Japanese, whose origin we are soon to examine, may have
enjoyed like facilities of intercommunication; and consequently, in common
with all maritime peoples at this stage of human existence, became to a cer-
tain extent mixed and composite.

Until we reflect, we know not the possibilities of human nature. The
exact justice of all nature’s arrangements, and the unerring actions of her
laws is exhibited in her method of developing man. He is carniverous, hence
combative; gregarious, therefore social. This is equally true of individ-
uals and of nations. If we follow out this thought, we shall find man, even
in his perturbations, is a creature of law. ‘

All matter is similar in substance, differing only in degree of development.
The refinement of matter is a process ceaselessly going on in the Eastern
as well as in the Western hemisphere; for the parental law of physical and
mental formation, and progressive development is universal, coéxtensive and
coéyal with nature, No solitary world or people has a special code of laws.
God, the controlling power, is law, impartial and universal. Man is the
highest physical ultimate of matter endowed with a progressive prin-
ciple. To him, religion is a grand, progressive, moral science, unfolding his
physical and mental qualities by exact and eternal law. It everywhere
teaches him that the aspect of all created things is continually changing, and
in obedience to law he must advance, for all present conditions periodically
perish. With constantly changing conditions, an endless evolution of forms
and ideas is ceaselessly occurring.

Nature is everywhere instinctive with life; attractive and repulsive forces
are exerted over atoms and bodies, and equally over minds. These, in the
latter case, influence migrations. Capricious influences often intervene to
determine direction; for nature works by greater or lesser impulses, yet her
methods determined by law, are always adapted to the end in view, to the
plan of the Great Architect, the Intelligent Mind of the Universe.

68 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Perfect arrangement and maturity of plan marks the order of creation.
Life is to unfold, cultivate and develop our rudimentary powers. Every atom
bears its own record. Our own soul is the parchment, whereon is indelibly
engraved our virtues and our vices. Action and rest succeed one another.
Periods of intense activity are succeeded by others, either dilatory or inert,
when action gradually subsides. The world is now entering a period of
great popular activity.

Language is inadequate to convey a perfect idea of a spectacle, open to the
analytical eye of every observing naturalist; sublime as it is wonderful, exact
as itis impartial. All things are subservient to exact law, and similar con-
ditions lead to similar results. An elementary study of the early intercourse
among so-called western nations, seems imperative to those who would seek
to unravel a corresponding movement among aborigines of the far East.

The independence of thought and action, which this age has developed,
precludes the acceptance of any theory by the educated classes, which is not
in accordance with nature and reason. Only by practical illustrations can we
properly comprehend nature’s intricate principles and processes. Science
says: prove all things, all truth is susceptible of proof.

Although many individual instances here quoted may be familiar to schol-
ars; their ethnological value is especially apparent when massed in one col-
lection, where they show early intercourse to have been habitual rather than
exceptional, revealing the probability as well as the possibility of very early
admixture of races, and finally elicit testimony to establish a certainty.

From the éarliest dawn of human history, tribes and nations appear to have
been more or less mixed, either when captured as prisoners of war, like the
Sabine women of Rome, or united in friendly alliance for purposes of com-
merce. General communication, here shown to have extensively occurred
during the early stages of human development, naturally implies that all
early races brought in contact by commerce, have to a certain extent, mu-
tually left their impress upon each other.

Before submitting the ancient records of Asia to a scrutinizing search, we
briefly trace the early footsteps of national intercourse in the histories of
western nations. Gradual progression marks the development of commerce,
from the rude attempt of the ancients to follow their coast with primitive gal-
leys, having solitary mast and sail, or oars double or treble banked, to the
dauntless energy of ocean steamships at the present day. Slowly but surely
commerce is raising inventive genius above the fame of military chieftains,
and enabling Watt, Fulton, Arkwright, Whitney and Morse, to claim a greater
share of our true admiration, than agents of destruction like Alexander,
Cesar or Genghis khan.

Maritime commerce, which exchanges what a nation can spare from ‘its
abundance, for what it wants, is of very ancient origin, and may have had its
beginning in the unrecorded era, nearly coéval with the development of in-
telligence in man.

The study of astronomy, a science essentially necessary to ocean navigation,
was very ancient among oriental nations. Learned astronomers are persuaded
that the celestial observations of the Chinese were accurately taken B. C.
2249; those of an eclipse, B. C. 2155, have been proved as authentic, and

ACADEMY OF SCIENCEs. 69

other observations are recorded three centuries later. Astronomical observa-
tions made at Babylon, calculated the rotundity of the earth, which they esti-
mated at 40,000 miles in circumference; and those when transmitted to Greece
by Alexander, and seen by Aristotle, B. C. 324, contained a calendar of above
nineteen centuries, extending back to within fifteen years of those ascribed to
the Chinese. Europeans first learned this science from Jupiter Belus, king
of Babylon. The ancient kingdoms of India appear to have had observations
fully as early as the Babylonians.

We will now attempt to trace chronologically the naval growth and ancient
commerce of western nations by their records, from B. C. 2249 to the Chris-
tian era, to demonstrate the possibility of early migrations of races in pre-
historic times. Migrations by water, which appear by our own histories to
have occurred around the Mediterranean, may likewise have occurred on the
Pacific, and in other parts of the habitable globe. Shore lines and water
courses were early availed of for the distribution and subdivision of races.
Mountain ranges were natural barriers.

The authenticity of ancient history necessarily rests upon the evidence of
ancient writers, when unimpaired by later discoveries. This summary has
therefore required a judicious digest of many original authors, from whom its
Statistics are compiled and arranged.

Few seem to be aware of how early and extended an intercourse existed be-
tween Asia and the western world, which in its earliest ages was principally
conducted by the South Arabians, a people apparently more enlightened by
science and commerce than any nation farther East except the Phoenicians.

The South Arabian commerce is supposed to be the most ancient inter-
course between far-distant peoples, of which western nations have any
remaining records. That next in importance, and apparently also in order of
time, was that of the Phcenicians and their colonies, especially Carthage and
Gadir (changed by the Saracens to Cadiz). Those general enemies of com-
merce, the Romans, soon abolished that of Cathage and of Corinth. With
the increase of the Roman empire came the decrease of commerce, excepting
only that branch necessarily enlarged by an increasing demand for Oriental
luxuries. Of this very early trade of the Europeans and nations of Asia
Minor, with the Orient, we happily possess a description which, for accuracy
and minuteness of detail, when compiled, may almost rival a modern official
account.

As the Roman empire declined, the Oriental trade, supported merely
by the redundant opulence of Rome, gradually decayed; and in the sixth cen-
tury we find the intercourse with India turned into a new channel. During
the many dark ages which succeeded the subversion of the western empire,
gross ignorance prevailed, and commerce, in common with literature and
science, became neglected in the western hemisphere, until renewed attention
was drawn to it by the Saracens, and at some of the Italian seaports. The
spirit of commerce afterwards arose in the Netherlands and at some German
seaports, followed by Portugal and Spain, and latterly by Great Britain and
other European nations.

The Greeks esteemed Phoenicians as the inventors of commerce, shipbuild-
ing, navigation, and the application of astronomy to nautical purposes; their

70 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

capital, Sidon, founded about B. C. 2200, became preéminently great and
illustrious for the wonderful energy of its people, but it is presumed that com-
merce was received by the Phcenicians from the Babylonians, and in turn
found its way there from Indian countries farther East, along the Asiatic
shore and Malayan archipelagoes.

That Persian poem, the book of Job, generally admitted to be the oldest
book in the Hebrew bible, shows that sciences were then cultivated, ship-
building, useful and ornamental arts, were in an advanced state, and com-
merce was vigorously prosecuted. Vessels are spoken of as distinguished for
their speed, bringing gold from Ophir, and topazes from Ethiopia.

B. C. 1728, the Arabians conducted an extensive and profitable trade be-
tween Egypt and India, importing largely of spices, gold and silver; and it is
recorded, B. C. 1556, that vessels were propelled by fifty oars. This custom
continued, and in later history we find their size increased, and they were fur-
nished with three, and at times five, tires of oars.

The early history of Greece shows their vessels were Pheenician built,
rowed by oars—long, slender, open boats, lightly constructed, capable of
being transported upon shoulders, the smallest carrying 50 men, the largest
120—and although they had masts and square sails, they depended mainly
upon their oars. Seventy geographical miles was considered a day’s work
for a vessel with oars, and the sailors were paid four oboli, or about eight
cents a day.

Much of the early Greek mythology came originally from India. There is
scarcely anything the Greeks ever learned from the far Orient, the invention
of which they have not ascribed to their own countrymen. Many of our best
scholars, aided by recent discoveries and researches, are now persuaded that
the use of letters was known to the Greeks before Cadmus came from Phe-
nicia, B. C. 1556. The earliest letters known in Greece were more probably
those which Plato calls Hypoborean (i. e. northern), and describes as different
from letters of his own age. According to Diodorus Siculus, Orpheus used
Pelasgic letters, which were older than the Greek.

Strabo says: the invention of rafts, the very first rude essays in navigation,
was ascribed to Erythras, a king of some part of the coast of the Persian Gulf.
Theophrastus is, I believe, the oldest author who alludes to cinnamon and
other spices and aromatics, knowing them to be the produce of India. In-
tercourse between India and Arabia was easy by availivg of the monsoons,
whose periodical regularity were observed and taken advantage of, to bring
cargoes of spices many ages before the time of Hippalus, whom the Egyptian
Greeks supposed to be their first discoverer. The Southern Arabs traded to
more remote parts of India than the Persians or Assyrians, and from the
earliest ages enjoyed most generally the entire monopoly of the trade be-
tween far India and the western world. It was not until Europeans found
an ocean route to India via the Cape of Good Hope, that the ancient system
of their most important commerce was totally overturned.

This commercial history is quoted as showing how common and easy was
the migration of colonies by sea in remote ages, and how great an ascendency
the possession of shipping and maritime power gave to some of the pre-his-
toric races. In very early times the Phenician merchants were the greatest

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. bs

ocean carriers for the whole western world. B. C. 1280, the spirit of trade is
recorded as having spread over the greater part of Asia.

The religion of Egypt declared the sea unclean, because the dead body of
their god Osiris was thrown into it. Egyptians therefore abhorred the sea,
and formerly avoided any concern in maritime affairs. Their early trade was
conducted by foreigners; on the Mediterranean and with Arabia, their com-
merce was for a long time wholly entrusted to the Phenicians. According to
Apollonius Rhodius, B. C. 1300, and prior to the expedition of the Argonauts,
Sesostris, king of Egypt, built a fleet of 400 vessels on the Erythrean (Red)
Sea. The Egyptians were, however, but fresh-water sailors; their hulls and
masts were made of thorn, and sails of paper.

The Greeks had skillful ship-builders, and Homer has immortalized Har-
monides as the builder of the vessels which carried off the beautiful Helen
from Sparta. During the ‘‘ heroic ages’’ of Greece, the petty princes on the
sea coast frequently fitted out vessels to go on piratical cruises against the
merchant ships upon the Mediterranean; hence it became common to question
a commander whether he professed piracy or trade.

Their course depended on the previous knowledge of the shore acquired by
some member of the crew. Homer describes Ulysses as covering his ship
with long planks, making probably a half-deck.

B. C. 1194, when Paris carried off Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta,
Agamemnon, king of Argos, embarked a Grecian army of 100,000 menin a
fleet of 1186 vessels to avenge the affront.

Castor, of Rhodes, a writer cotemporary with Julius Czsar, made a cata-
logue of nations who successively attained the empire of the (Mediterranean)
Aigean Sea. 3B. C. 1280, the island of Crete was called by Aristotle the Em-
press of the Sea. B.C. 1179, the Lydians, after the Cretans, were honored
by Minos with the title of masters of the sea. B.C. 1058, the dominion of
the seais ascribed to the Pelasgi. B. C. 1003, Castor alleges the Thra-
cians had the Empire of the Sea, and held it 19 years. B.C. 890, the domin-
ion of the sea is ascribed to the Phrygians. B. C. 753, the Milesians are
represented as supreme in naval power, and having a wide commercial fame.
B. C. 734, the dominion of the sea is ascribed to the Carians, buccaneers,
noted for their piracies. B.C. 717, the Corinthians, a nation of Greece,
made a considerable figure in naval transactions. Thucydides mentions their
naval force soon after the Trojan war, kept up to protect their trade against
pirates. B.C. 676, the Lesbians obtained and held command of the sea for
59 years. B.C. 67, the Romans were masters of the sovereignty of the sea
without a competitor, having destroyed nearly all the mercantile nations.

B. C. 1100, the Pheenicians extended their discoveries along the entire
northern coast of Africa and the opposite shores of Spain. The Mediterra-
nean was no limit to their enterprise, for they passed the Pillars of Hercules
(Gibraltar) and established powerful commercial settlements upon the Atlan-
tic, mutually beneficial to themselves and natives of thecountry. Phoenician
colonies were societies of opulent and intelligent merchants, ingenious manu-
facturers, skillful artizans and hardy seamen, who left an overcrowded pop-
ulation, with the good wishes of their parents and friends, to settle in a dis-
tant country and there maintain a correspondence for mutual advantage.

12 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

B. C. 1046, Eupolemus says David built ships in Arabia, wherein he sent
men skilled in mines and metals to the island of Ophir.

B. C. 1012 and 975, Solomon extended his territories to the Red Sea, and
despatched ships to the rich countries of the South and far East. Hiram,
king of Tyre, wishing an opening to the rich commerce of the Orient, either
acted in partnership or concert with him.

Previously all Oriental products had been received at second-hand through
the Arabians. Solomon’s ships, built and conducted by the Tyrians, sailed in
company with those of Hiram to the rich land of Ophir and Tarshish. A
voyage required three years to accomplish, and the returns were prodigiously
profitable, consisting of gold, silver, precious stones, ivory, woods, apes and
peacocks. They probably availed of the monsoons to visit Ceylon, Sumatra,
India, and possibly communicated with China and Japan. The Phcenicians,
when in the Indian Ocean in company with Solomon’s fleet, doubtless saw
the beautiful Malay prows, and reported and improved upon the former
models of their vessels, and multiplied their oars or paddles.

B. C. 916, the Rhodians composed a Code of Maritime laws, which was
copied by the Romans, and ingrafted into the law of Oberon, which is in a
great measure in force to this day. They were of Phoenician origin.

B. C. 890, the Greeks received from Asia coined silver money, weights and
measures.

B. C. 717, the commercial city of Tyre was attacked by Salmanasar, king
of Assyria, who brought against it a fleet of 70 vessels, furnished and manned
by Phoenicians. The Tyrians defeated this fleet with only 12 ships, and took
500 prisoners. This is the most ancient naval battle recorded in European
histories.

B. C. 700, great improvements were introduced into shipbuilding by the
Corinthians.

B. C. 641, Coleus, of Samos, sailed through the Straits of Gibraltar to Tar-
tessus on the southwestern coast of Spain, and was the first Greek who ever
saw the Atlantic.

B. C. 616, Necos, king of Egypt, sent a fleet of discovery to circumnavigate
Africa, engaging therefor Pheenician navigators who sailed by the Red Sea,
and following the coast of Africa, returned by the Mediterranean, reaching
home the third year after their departure.

B. C. 594, according to Diodorus Siculus, Apries, king of Egypt, had a
fleet on the Mediterranean, and fought a naval battle against the maritime
cities of Sidon and Tyre, the former of which he captured, beating the fleets
of Phoenicia and Cyprus, and returned to Egypt loaded with spoils. As
Egypt had no ship timber, most of the Egyptian fleets were built by, and pur-
chased of, the Phoenicians.

B. ©. 588, The Tyrians employed workmen from all neighboring countries
to labor in building and navigating their ships, which were magnificently
adorned with ivory, purple and fine linen; their commanders were most re-
spected, and every commercial and maritime calling was esteemed honorable.

About this time, Thales, a Greek philosopher descended of Phcenician par-
entage, pointed out to the Greeks the Ursa minor, by which Phoenicians
steered their course at night; instructed them in the rotundity of the earth;
fixed the year into 365 days, and predicted the year of an eclipse.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. (3)

Pythagoras, a native of the island of Samos, taught the rotundity of the
earth, the existence of the antipodes, and a confused idea of the real motion
of the planetary system as afterwards demonstrated by Copernicus.

B. C. 550, the Phoenicians visited Ireland, and returned with reports of
the islands now known as Great Britain.

B. C. 548, we learn that the inhabitants of Phoca, a Grecian city on the
Asiatic coast, were a commercial people, and the first Greeks who traded to
remote Asiatic countries; performing their voyages in long vessels of fifty
oars, in the management of which they were very expert. Strabo mentions a
colony of Phoczans who were expelled from Corsica, who sailed to the south
of Gaul, where, B. C. 538, they founded Massilia (Marseilles), a city which
about the Christian era, sustained a high character as the seat of science,
commerce and naval power.

The Etruscans and Etrurians, says Didorus Siculus, founded colonies at a
very early age, were good mariners, and appear to have possessed the greater
portion of Italy before the Trojan war. Polybius says, B. C. 524, the Car-
thagenians were possessed of hereditary preéminence in nautical science.
Their ships were equal to any on the Mediterranean, carrying carved figure
heads and sterns. Aristotle says they were the first who raised their ships of
war from three to four rows of oars. They constructed wet docks, and were
first to appoint second captains (mates) to their vessels.

B. C. 524, the Carthagenians embarked 30,000 people in sixty ships of fifty
oars each, and passed Gibraltar to the west coast of Africa to found colonies.
These vessels must have carried 500 persons each.

B. C. 506, Darius, king of Persia, invaded the Scythians with a fleet of 600
vessels. Darius was also sovereign of Phcenicia.

B. C. 497, the Ionian fleet of 353 vessels was defeated by 600 ships belong-
ing to the maritime vassals of Persia, chiefly under the direction of Phoeni-
cians.

B. C. 494, an expedition, conducted by Mardonius, son of Darius, com-
posed of 300 ships, containing 20,000 soldiers, was cast away against the
rocks of Mount Athos during a violent storm.

B. C. 481, Xerxes, the mighty monarch of Persia and a greater part of Asia,
sent a memorable expedition against Greece, composed of 1,207 triremes, or
ships of war, carrying three tires of oars, and 3,000 transports, which formid-
able armada was finally defeated by the Greeks.

B. C. 477, Herodotus says, Amilcar a Carthagenian general, invaded Sicily
with an army of 300,000 men. As Sicily is an island, this necessitated a
naval fleet. :

Frequent mention of large naval fleets transporting armies, is made from
this date until the Christian era. From this time wide commercial intercourse
existed,and many naval engagements of great magnitude are noted.

The commerce which had flourished for ages in the hands of the Pheni-
cians was largely desolated by the conquests of Alexander, B. C. 333.

B. C. 260, the Romans, who prospered for a while by a perpetual violation
of justice, resolved to establish a naval force for piracy and commercial plun-
der. They had neither ship carpenters nor seamen, but got possession of a
stranded Carthagenian quinquereme, and in sixty days from felling the trees,

74 - PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

their carpenters had constructed a fleet of 100 quinqueremes and 20 triremes.
Roman sailors were drawn from the despised classes of the populace, and
were unrespected, while the navigators and seamen of Tyre and Carthage
were held by their people in high and deserved esteem.

B. C. 242, although the Romans had considerably improved in nautical
knowledge, the progress of Science among them was very tardy, and their
losses by storms at sea were prodigious. In one gale almost every soul per-
ished on 384 of their ships, which either foundered or were wrecked. At the
same time the Carthagenian fleet made a good harbor and escaped damage.
The haughty Romans thought commercial concerns beneath their dignity,
and that extended selfishness which they called patriotism, soon rendered it
impossible for any mercantile nation to flourish within the grasp of Rome.

B. C. 219, superabundant wealth induced a,rage for shipbuilding, among
Hiero, king of Syracuse, and other opulent kings of his age, vastly exceeding
every purpose of utility in enormous bulk and extravagant ornament. As-
sisted by Archimedes, Hiero constructed a galley of twenty tires of oars,
sheathed with sheet lead, and carrying three masts, which no vessel had
hitherto done. She had the embellishments of a palace with the fortifications
and warlike stores of a castle. Athenzeus tells us, on the authority of Cal-
lixenus and Mosepion, that Ptolemy Philopator, king of Egypt, built two
huge ships. One intended for sea service was 420 feet long, 57 feet beam,
consisting of two long flat vessels united by one deck, having two heads and
two sterns. She carried 4,000 oars, disposed in 40 tires. Besides 4,000
rowers, she carried 2,850 soldiers, cooks, servants, etc. The other vessel,
intended for inland navigation, was 300 feet long and 45 feet beam.

B. C. 170, the Sabeeans, who possessed the southern extremity of Arabia,
acquired great opulence by commerce, and preserved their liberty unimpaired
by conquest during many ages. Agatharchides says they were in possession
of the carrying trade between Asia and Europe, and commanded the com-
merce of both. They filled the dominions of Ptolemy with gold and silver and
precious stones (probably from Ceylon), and founded several colonies in for-
eign countries.

B. C. 146, the Romans, determined upon the total abolition of commerce,
destroyed the mercantile city of Corinth, and thought themselves entitled to
the exclusive privilege of plundering the world.

B. C. 100, Strabo repeats a story of a vessel from India, picked up adrift in
the Red Sea, with only one man aboard, almost dead, whose shipmates died
of famine, and Ptolemy Eurgetes, II, king of Egypt during the Macedonian
dominion, sent Eudorus to convey him back to India, whence the expedition
returned with aromatics and precious stones.

B. C. 67, Pompey, with 500 Roman ships under his command, captured 400
ships at Cilicia.

B. C. 66, Lucullus, returning from Asia, brought as a part of his plunder,
a large number of books.

B. C. 57, the Veniti, said by Strabo to be a Belgie nation, settled near the
northwestern extremity of Gaul (France), were distinguished for their nauti-
cal science and experience. They had great numbers of vessels, excellent
sea-boats, used leather sails, and iron chains instead of rope cables, and car-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 75

ried on a considerable trade with Britain. Their feet of 220 such vessels was
overpowered and captured by a Koman fleet of 600 galleys.

B. C. 54, Julius Cesar collected above 800 ships and landed a large force in
Britain, subduing a great many kings, four of whom were in Kent.

B. C. 48, the profusion of luxury introduced into Rome by the conquest of
enervated kingdoms of Asia, had now made alarming progress.

B. C. 25, ambassadors are said to have been sent by an Indian prince
called Porus, from India to Rome, and; according to Florus, also from the
Scythians, Sarmatians, and even the Seres, to court the friendship of Augus-
tus, who was then in Spain. Those from India were nearly four years upon
their journey. Augustus was called the father of the Roman imperial navy,
of which Ravenna on the Adriatic was the principal eastern station, and
Misenum in the gulf of Naples, the western. Pliny says, in his reign some
Roman navigators explored the coast of the North Sea as far as Cimbri (the
north end of Denmark). At this time the Britons used small vessels of which
the keel and principal frame was made of light wood, the bottom and sides of
a kind of basket work made of osiers, and the whole was covered with hides.

The Arabians, who furnished the greatest and most reliable part of articles
imported into the Mediterranean, appear to have been the only traders from
the West, whose voyages in very early days extended to India. Im 1851, I
met a small native Arabian vessel far from land in the Bay of Bengal, bound
towards the Spice Islands of the Malay Archipelago—a notable relic of an-
cient times. People of such commercial and nautical knowledge as the
South Arabians, could not have experienced the semi-annual changes of the
monsoon, without early availing themselves of the advantages they offered to
their navigation. It would by no means be extravagant to suppose that they
traded to Taprobané (Ceylon), or even to countries and islands far beyond
it. As early as the days of Solomon (B. C. 1000), no such spices were known
in Jerusalem as those presented by the Queen of Sheba; and later we learn in
the days Ptolemy Philadelphus, B. C. 280, the Sabzeans, whose long expe-
rience in the nature of the periodical winds called monsoons, of the seas and
various ports of India, undersold the merchants of Egypt, who coasted
the whole way to India in their own small vessels. Ptolemy sent Dionysius
to India as Ambassador, with a view of establishing direct intercourse with
that country.

In the ‘‘Periplus* of the Erythrwan Sea,’’ oriental vessels then in use
are thus described: madaratc, small vessels joined together by sewing; trap-
paga and kotymba, long vessels used by fishermen and pilots; sangara, pirat-
ical crafts like double canoes; and kolandiophonta, which vessels were of the
largest size, with capacity to perform distant voyages, and were in the trade
of Arabia, with the river Ganges, and countries beyond it. This work
which, for approved accuracy of geographical, nautical and commercial in-
formation, stands unrivalled by any production of antiquity, comprehends
under the name of the Erythrean Sea, all the ocean between Africa and

*The PERIPLUS (circumnavigation) was written about the first century of the Christian
era by an Egyptian Greek, an intelligent merchant and practical navigator upon the Eryth-
rean Sea.

76 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

India, including the Bay of Bengal. It observes that the unexplored ocean
extends to the southward until it joins the Atlantic, information generally
concealed from the age of Necos, B. C. 616, until the re-discovery of the Cape
of Good Hope by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century.

Some authors say that Solomon’s ships circumnayigated Africa and re-
turned by the Mediterranean laden with gold. More likely they availed
of the monsoons and went to Ceylon, India and Sumatra.

The Seres, described as the most remote people of Asia known even by re-
port to the Europeans, are said to have manufactured sericum or silk gar-
ments from threads finer than those of the spider, which they combed from
(cocoons like) flowers. Nearchus, the admiral of Alexander’s fleet, speaks
of this precious manufacture which found its way to Rome in the days of
Cesar, and being a monopoly and subject to a long succession of tedious and
dangerous sea and land carriages, sold at a price making it equal in value to
gold. Seres also shipped to Arabia steel much superior to all other kinds,
the product of a country in the eastern part of Asia. White rock candy and
porcelain such as is produced in China, was also shipped, and all these bore
the expense of a succession of land and water carriages. May not the steel
have come from Japan and the porcelain from China? When the Portuguese
arrived on the coast of Asia in their first voyages of discovery, they found it
frequented by vessels of various nations.

The natives of India, deriving all the necessities and enjoyments of life
from their fertile soil and own industry, cared very little for productions of
the West. Grecian merchants were obliged to pay for their cargoes chiefly
in money, and Pliny says, that at the lowest computation, 500 sestertia (equal
to £403,645 16s 8d sterling) was every year sent out of the Roman empire for
the purchase of goods, which were sold in Rome at an advance of one hun-
dred for one. A sum equally large was also paid to Arabian merchants for
articles from their country of mere luxury and female vanity.

The increasing demand of almost the entire Roman empire for Oriental lux-
uries, all of which when crossing Egypt in transitu paid especially heavy im-
port and export duties, increased the revenue of that country immensely;
some idea of which is given us by Appian, who says Ptolemy Philadelphus at
his death, left in his treasury 740,000 talents, (equal to £191,167,666 13s 4d
sterling), much of which, however, may have been derived from the plunder
looted by his father from the Persian empire.

In thus glancing at the early records of ocean navigation among the Ara-
bians, Phoenicians, Greeks, Hebrews, etc., we discover the important po-
sition occupied by the Phoenicians, as the principal supporters of an early
and extended intercourse with the Orient. We may draw some analogies
therefrom in a future outline of the early commerce of Asiatic nations, among
themselves, and their intercourse with the American continent in very early
times. All these movements of peoples have an important ethnological bear-
ing, as revealing the possible methods of migrations along the shore-lines of
countries.

From early maritime records here cited in illustration, we are led to infer
that intercommunication by water, along coast-lines, was very ancient among
all western nations at a very early period, and we are persuaded that all

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 77

commerce was then in connected circles, like links of a chain; each orbit of
trading fleets communicating at its extremes with others farther east and
west. Thus the silk of China and Japan, unknown in Europe, found its way
into ports on the Baltic Sea, through several limited districts of trade, each
keeping within its natural limits, but acting as a medium for circulating the
products of one extreme to the other. All trade being more or less a monop-
oly, the point of production of many valuable commodities was frequently
concealed.

Certain terminal points exist in all trade where one system of commerce
links into and connects with another reaching beyond. Such were Gadir,
Massilia, Alexandria, Tyre, Sidon, Taprobané (Ceylon), Molucea, Seres, ete.

Thus legends and traditions of far distant countries were communicated in
advauce of their discovery, and although at first deemed mythical, were gen-
erally founded on facts, and largely confirmed by later discoveries and ex-
plorations in the field, and since found fully detailed in Oriental histories yet
extant. Every variety of enormity has in all ages been the characteristic
ascribed by ignorance to unknown nations, and these have been gradually
removed farther and farther as discovery advanced.

Great numbers of people were distributed by this early commercial enter-
prise, and how large indeed must have been the number of ancient Phceni-
cian and Malay wrecks, if the Japanese wrecks of the present day may be
accepted as any criterion. Nature is universally consistent.

In future papers I shall discuss the different origin of the Chinese and Jap-
anese races, and conclude by expressing the opinion that early races have
been far more spread and intermixed by early maritime intercourse, than
the casual observer would suppose, and that, however distinct any type of
mankind may appear, all will be found to be more or less composite, except-
ing, perhaps, some remnant of early aborigines, driven into a forced seclusion
among the fastnesses of interior mountain ranges.

The authorities adduced in this paper might be greatly increased, but I
have studied to be as brief as possible, aiming only to show the progressive
quality and universality of natural law, whereby analogical reasoning is ren-
dered comparatively safe, and to establish the fact of early intercourse among
maritime nations of the West, rather than to fully illustrate either, by elab-
orate details.

Dr. Brigham read an invitation to attend the International
Congress of Americanists, to be held at Nancy, France, July 22,
1875.

Judge Hastings called the attention of the Academy to the
fact that the work of the State Geological Survey on the ‘‘ Bot-
any of California”’ would shortly be published. As the flora of
the Pacific Coast develops some characteristic species, novel and
interesting, worthy the attention of the students of this science,
is is highly to be desired that the work on the botany of this
State should be published. This publication is now secured

78 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

through the exertions of D. C. Gilman, President of the Univer-
sity of California, at whose request the following named gentle-
men have contributed the necessary funds to put the work in
stereotype: Leland Stanford, Henry Pierce, R. B. Woodward,
Lloyd Tevis, D. O. Mills, J. C. Flood, John O. Earl, Wm. Nor-
ris and Chas. McLaughlin. These gentlemen are not known to
be scientists, and do not appear to be actuated by any special or
personal motive. The California Academy of Sciences, therefore,
in recognition of their generosity, orders that their names be en-
rolled upon the records of the Society as benefactors of Science.

And it is deemed proper that honorable mention should be
made of Professor Asa Gray, Professor J. D. Whitney, Professor
Watson and Professor W. H. Brewer, for their personal devotion
to the work without pecuniary consideration.

The Secretary was ordered to incorporate the above remarks
in the minutes.

Reevrar Meerine, Aprit 51x, 1875.
Vice-President Edwards in the chair.
Sixty-five members present.

Donations to the Cabinet: From Chas. D. Gibbes, bird’s nests
from San Joaquin County; from Mr. Frink, collection of grasses,
bark and nuts from Hawaiian Islands; from Professor George
‘Davidson, a collection of Japanese plants.

Horatio Stone read a paper on the Unity of Arts.

Amos Bowman read a paper on Coal Deposits of the Pacific
Coast.

Professor Brewer exhibited a map showing the distribution of
woodlands in the United States. In speaking of the map he
alluded to the theory of the connection of the existence of for-
ests with rainfall. In the investigations of the Smithsonian In-
stitution, no instrumental evidence had been found, in any part
of the United States, that the destruction of forests had re-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 79

duced the rainfall. The fact appears to be so, but has not been
properly proven.

Dr. Gibbons did not agree with Professor Brewer, and
thought there was evidence to prove that there was a connection
between the existence or non-existence of forests and rainfall.
In California, in regions very limited in extent, the rainfall
varies greatly in a few miles, the greater amount falling in the
vicinity of timber.

Dr. Gibbons exhibited a branch of poplar tree on which a piece
of misletoe had grown in a peculiar manner. It came out from
the end of the broken branch as if it had been grafted.

Reeutar Meeting, Aprit 197TH, 1875.

In the absence of the President and Vice-Presidents, John
Hewston, Jr., was called to the Chair.

Fifty members present.

The following new members were elected: Alfred E. Regens-
berger, Jas. B. Clifford, E. T. Tarbox, Arthur C. Taylor, Chas.
Frances, J. R. Stanton and F. P. Hartney.

Messrs. 8S. B. Christy and Frank Soulé were proposed for
membership.

Donations to the Museum: From Professor Gustaf Hisen,
University of Upsala, Sweden, two specimens of Pinus flexilis in
foliage, two cones and foliage of the sub-alpine form from Mono
Pass, former 12,000 feet, latter lower; also Hphedra antisyphalitica
and Abies Pationiana (Williamsonii) from same locality. W.G.
Blunt donated silky poppies of an unknown plant used in stuffing
birds; Joseph H. Clarke, of Cahto, Mendocino County, Califor-
nia, presented specimens of salmon trout. From T. J. Butler,
Arizona, specimen of curious insect captured in Agua Fria River,
Arizona.

Professor W. H. Brewer read the following:

80 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

On the Formation of Ice-pellets or Hail, in the Spray
of Yosemite Fall.

BY PROFESSOR W. H. BREWER.

On Wednesday last, April 19th, in company with Mr. Galen Clark (under
the Commissioners, custodian of Yosemite Valley), I visited the foot of the
upper Yosemite Fall. In the winter, a great ice-cone forms in front of this
fall, mostly, it is probable, an accumulation of frozen spray. It is now
much reduced by thawing from what it was a month ago. At our visit, it
extended below the fall several hundred feet, bridging the chasm to an
unknown thickness. The two persons most familiar with it, respectively
estimated its thickness that day at ‘‘ sixty to one hundred feet,’’ and ‘“‘ nearer
two hundred feet.’’ The outer side of this ‘‘cone’’ slopes away from the fall;
the inner side rises like a wall in front of the sheet, which falls mostly
behind it with deep, thunderous sound; the water flows beneath the mass,
and emerges from an icy arch at its foot, which arch in shape and appearance
strongly reminds one of the ice-arch in the foot of the glacier at the source of
the Arveiron, at Mt. Blanc.

The stream was so high from the melting of the snow, that it dropped from
the extreme top, not clinging to the rounded crest, as it does when the water
is lower, but leaping out so that the actual leap is perhaps fully 1550 feet to
the rocky bottom, and to the top of the ‘‘ice-cone,’’ nearly or quite 1500 feet.
Over the ice-cone the spray is furiously driven by the powerful air-blast
produced by the fall.

The day was warm and clear, the time of observation between 12 m. and
12.30 p.m., and the fall in its brightest illumination, as it faces nearly south.
As we neared the ice-cone, certain appearances suggested to me that the spray
which drifted over it was (in part, at least) snow. To examine this, we
ventured on this cone farther than strict prudence dictated, and in the
tempest, which stung our hands and faces like shot, we found the spray in
part to be hail, or ice-pellets. The exact character of these pellets could not
be studied in the blinding blast to which we were subjected. They appeared
to be hard, like hail-stones, tolerably uniform in size, and I estimated them
at about one-tenth of an inch in diameter. They accumulated quite copiously
on our clothes, but most so towards our feet, as if they were most abundantly
hurled along near the ice on which we stood. They also accumulated in thin
sheets on the rocks which rose through the ice near its edge.

The ice-cone, which had been very white during the winter, had been
sullied by sand and dirt carried over it withthe spray in the heavy storm of
the previous week. Near its lower edge, however, were many depressions
filled with what appeared to be new and pure snow, which we believed to be in
reality fresh accumulations of these ice-pellets, but from their position it was
impossible to examine them. We however pushed our way back to the rocky

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 65

It is sincerely hoped that the publication of this record, which has so inter-
esting an ethnological import, may result in awakening Japan to the adop-
tion of immediate steps in the great interest of a common humanity; for by
improving the models of her vessels, and adopting those with sea-going qual-
ities, this long record of disasters may speedily be abridged, if not wholly
terminated.

About a year since it became my duty to forward to Japan, half a dozen
wooden models, full drawings and specifications of small vessels, varying
from 40 to 200 tons, ordered by the Japanese government for the use of ship-
builders, which the now enlightened government has recommended them
to adopt, instead of their present form of junks. Thus the edict of 1639 has
passed away forever, and young Japan is rising to take her equal place among
the advancing nations of the world.

Few are better aware than the scientist, of the manifold and inevitable dan-
gers which attend all radical changes, when suddenly made; for success is a
problem seldom solved without repeated trials and inevitable failures. But
to-day, Japan is earnestly seeking to establish her national perpetuity, by fos-
tering a discriminating intelligence among her people, and by encouraging
general and liberal education among the masses. Thus she reverses in the
most practical manner, the other edict alluded to as promulgated in 1637.
Her centuries of quiet seclusion are now embalmed with the history of the past,
and she seeks true greatness in an enlightened administration of her national
affairs, and bids fair henceforth to reciprocate a generous friendship towards
all members of the great brotherhood of nations, from whom she may now
claim equal sympathy and neighborly protection.

The great changes in Japan can not be better illustrated than in the fact,
that itis now customary for the government of Japan, in common with all
other nations, to present through their Foreign office, some suitable reward
in acknowledgement of kind service, to the captains of vessels who rescue
their shipwrecked seamen.

The Japanese Government have now in their navy ten war ships, five
dispatch vessels, and five training ships, all steamers; and in their mercantile
marine, one hundred and two steamers of various tonnage, aggregating 30,718
tons; also 32 modern sailing vessels built in foreign style of 7,346 total ton-
nage.

The great Pacific Ocean and its adjoining waters, under the impulse of this
age of steam, is becoming the highway of an enterprising commerce, and
steadily unfolds an attractive field of research to ethnological and linguistic
archeologists.

Many young Japanese are already attracted to scientific pursuits, and
their valuable technical as well as general results, are beginning to claim the
attention of naturalists.

Much valuable scientific work has been done by Japanese scholars since
their early lessons received from Professor Wm. P. Blake and Professor
Raphael Pumpelly; two eminent American scientists, whom I had the honor

Proc. Can. AcapD. Sci., Vou. VI.—5.

66 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

of selecting and engaging in the summer of 1861, on behalf of the government
of Japan, to act as government Mineralogists and Mining Engineers.

A glorious opening now presents itself for some reliable and competent
scholar, with pecuniary means at command, to collect a library of books re-
lating to the Asiatic, shores of the North Pacific ocean, as perfect in its way
as is that of our great historian, Hubert H. Bancroft, relating to the native
races of the American coast; and when as systematically classified, and as
thoroughly studied, give to the world full and correct historical details and
analytical classifications of all native races on the borders of Asia; many of
whose records and traditions must necessarily fade with radical changes in
civilization, and soon pass beyond human reach.

The splendid sunrise, now dawning in the Orient, offers golden opportun-
ities, which should be promptly improved while available. Old ways are
giving place to new, and invaluable treasures of antiquity may be lost for-
ever, or cast aside to linger for a generation or two, in the memories of the
aged, before their shadowy forms become enshrouded in the misty veil of a
forgotten past.

Dr. Stout referred briefly to the death of Sir Charles Lyell,
and a Committee of three was appointed to draft appropriate
resolutions. The Chair appointed John Muir, H. G. Hanks,
and Dr. A. Kellogg.

Reevtar Meetine, Marcu 15, 1875.

Vice-President Gibbons in the Chair.
Twenty-two members present.

Henry R. Taylor and J. W. Anderson were elected resident
members; and Arthur C. Taylor was proposed.

Donations to the Museum: From John Muir, lava from Mt.
Shasta; also specimens of Pellea ternifolia and Cupressus McNab-
tana.

Mr. Amos Bowman read a paper on Terraces in the Coast
Range as related to the detritus of glaciers and of the ancient
rivers.

Charles Wolcott Brooks read the following paper:

tbe

. Zan ’ Pe
LAGE 4,

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 81

wall beside the fall and as near the sheet as it was possible to breathe or to
stand. If any of the pellets occurred there, I could not prove it. I could
not feel them, and the water so blinded us that nothing could be seen
distinctly. On returning, we kept on the rocks, and noticed none of the ice-
pellets there. I had left my thermometer behind, and had no means of
testing the temperature of this freezing blast.

At Leidig’s Hotel, which is one and three-eighths mile distant and about a
thousand feet lower, my thermometer stood at about 52° Fahr. at 6 a.m.;
78140 at 2.30 p.m.; 79° at 3.15. p.m.; 58° at 9 p.m., and 50° at 6 the next
morning. I had no wet-buib to determine the dryness, but that the air was
very dry was shown by the rapidity with which our saturated clothes dried.

When this fall was visited by the State Geological Survey in June, 1863,
the idea was suggested that we examine the temperature of the water above
and below the fall, to see if any actual heating of the water occurred as a
result of its concussion after falling from so vast a height. The dryness of
the air was then so great that I was convinced that evaporation would coun-
terbalance or at least vitiate any results that might be theoretically based on
the mechanical equivalent of heat, so the experiment (which would have cost
much labor and time) was not tried. And on seeing this new phenomenon,
the hypothesis which immediately suggested itself to me as an explanation
was that it was due to evaporation. That the fall is fed by melting snow,
much of which still’ lies near its top; that the great volume of ice-cold water
chills the adjacent air to near 32 degrees; that the air-current thus cooled, as
it is drawn into and along with the immense descending mass, is a very dry
current, and that its rapid saturation by this evaporation of a portion of the
spray is sufficiently chilling to freeze drops of water up to a certain diameter.
Had the ice-pellets been portions of the ice-cone torn off from its edge and
hurled outward with its spray, we would not expect such an uniformity of size
as I observed.

Professor John LeConte, on my describing the phenomenon to him to-day,
has suggested another hypothesis, more plausible, perhaps, than mine. Itis
that the air carried down and cooled by the water is somewhat condensed at.
the base of the fall, and that by its expansion asit gets away from the pressure,
sufficient cold is produced to freeze the drops.

Whatever may be the explanation, of the fact there is no mistake.

T. J. Lowry read the following paper:
Hydrographic Surveying.
BY T. J. LOWRY, U. S. COAST SURVEY.

Hydrographic surveys of bays, iakes, rivers, gulfs and the parts of oceans
adjacent to coasts, are indispensable requisites to a safe navigation, and hence
successful international commerce. Being of national importance, they are
therefore national undertakings—and the Government Coast Surveys and

Proc, Cau. AcapD. Scr., Vou. VI.—6.

Thy

piled

LLL) PREY Pew

J Jj ideih,

gilded fromm prowto stern, and covered with a canopy Of silk.A.D.997~1797.

82 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

navies of all countries are engaged in determining and mapping the topography
of the water basins and channels of the earth.

An accurate survey of waters adjacent to land is based upon a survey of the
adjoining lands, by means of which the figure of the coast and the positions
of a sufficient number of conspicuous and well-defined objects near the coast
have been ascertained. These objects are the landmarks, by observations of
which the positions of points on the surface of the water (and hence the
soundings) are determined. The relative positions of the landmarks are
ascertained with a degree of accuracy proportionate to the character and
extent of information to be given by the chart. When perfect accuracy is
aimed at; many stations on shore (and especially on island shoals and reefs)
are first determined usually by a trigonometrical survey whose accuracy is
tested by a base of verification. The stations in the triangulation being
selected with reference to the ultimate ends in view (viz., the wants of the
hydrographer and navigator), will be so chosen as to include or determine
light-houses, headlands, and other remarkable objects—not allowing the
triangles, however, to depart too much from the well conditioned forms. In
making choice of stations, and thus giving shapes to the triangles, it is well
to remember, that where all the angles are to be observed, the condition most
favorable to the accuracy of computation—i. e., where instrumental errors
and errors of observation will least affect the determination—is where each
triangle is equilateral. But where, two angles only are to be observed, the
unobserved angle should be a right angle, and the observed angles equal to
each other and never less than twenty-five or thirty degrees. Experience
proves that, in well conditioned triangles, the small errors made in* the
measurement of the angles do not accumulate through each successive step
in the operation, but on the whole tend to compensate each other.

Whatever extent of coast may be surveyed, each series of hydrographic
operations will be confined to comparatively limited spaces, and the whole
will consist of numerous detailed charts correctly linked together and har-
monized by means of the triangulation on shore; a description, therefore, of
the modus operandi in making a hydrographic survey of a single harbor or
short sea reach will apply equally to the system adopted in the survey of an
extensive line of coast.

Having made a reconnaissance of the region to be surveyed, and gathered
a general idea of the facilities for, as well as the difficulties of doing the work,
the next step is to locate tide gauges and tide observers.

Judging from all information that can be gathered of the prevailing winds,
currents, tides, shoals, and the configuration of the shore line, the hydrogra-
pher will fix the number and sites of his tide gauges so as to get data for de-
termining the figure of the surface of the water at any given instant. They
should be more numerous the more the surface of the water at any instant
deviates from the horizontal form. And the fewer the gauges used the greater
the care to be exercised in deciding upon their locations. Placing a gauge
within a bar, sand-bank or other impediment to the free action of the water,
or within a lagoon which winds fill with water faster than it can escape, is to
be especially guarded against. And in comparatively limited basins of water

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 83

at least two gauges should be established—one at that side of the basin near-
est ‘‘whence the prevailing winds come,’’ and the other nearest ‘‘ whither
they go.’’? These gauges are not only checks on each other when the wind’s
action is an insignificant element, but where the wind drives water from one
portion of the basin and piles it up in another, they furnish data indispen-
sable for harmonizing soundings taken on those and calmer days.

In such a basin, when but one gauge is used, the proper place for it, theo-
rectically speaking, is the center of the basin. These considerations attended
to, each gauge is firmly fixed in a well sheltered spot, so that its zero shall be
below low-water at neap, and its top above high-water at spring-tides. By
proper circumspection for the site of each gauge, one will generally be found
to answer for each station, but where the observation is made from shore two
or more may at times become necessary—the observer following the tide from
gauge to gauge as it goes out and retreating over the same path as it comes
in. The kinds of tide gauges are as various as the circumstances demanding
them. The one ordinarily used is of the simplest kind, a straight vertical
post divided into feet and tenths, numbered from the bottom upwards; this
is found generally to serve its purpose, inasmuch as when it is too windy to
read the gauge correctly, it is blowing too much to sound accurately. A ver-
tical tube with small holes at the bottom to admit the water which supports a
float, is, however, susceptible of closer readings under all circumstances; and
for getting off-shore tides, Mitchell’s gauge is admirably adapted; while as a
self-registering gauge, Saxton’s stands without a parallel and leaves nothing
to be desired.

The zero of each gauge should be referred by means of a spirit-level, or
otherwise, to a bench mark cut distinctly and durably on some permanent
object (and the remark made in the book), so that, if displaced, it can be
properly replaced in position.

For the purpose of reducing the soundings, it is mainly essential that the
tide-gauge and sounding-boat watches be together; but where the laws of the
tides of the locality are also desired, it is best to keep either lunar or mean
solar time. A series of observations of the tides on these gauges, made simule
taneously with the soundings, furnish data for reducing each sounding to the
reference plane—the mean of the lowest low waters. This plane is also given
by these tidal observations. The frequency of the necessary readings of the
gauge varies from every half-hour to every five minutes, according to the
rapidity of the rise and fall of the tide.

And now, if there be not on the shore permanent well defined objects that
will serve as signals—such as spires, towers, flagstaffs, light-houses, or tall
slender trees, fixed by triangulation—then the hydrographer erects the neces-
sary signals; usually tripods boarded up, and painted white if projected on
dark back-ground from the sounding-boat, or red (or black) if against the
sky or a sandy back-ground.

The tide-gauges and signals being erected, the next step is to determine
carefully with a theodolite the relative position of these signals, and plot
them by the computed sides of the triangles of which they are the vertices.
It is, however, not imperative that the actual sizes of the triangles be at first

84 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

known; but the triangles can be computed and plotted from any assumed
base, since the ‘‘ relative positions of the signals ’’ is the essential desideratum,

Hydrographic surveys all have for their main object the tracing, deter-
mining, and plotting, on a suitable scale, the contour lines of navigable
channels and water-basins. Contouring represents the inequalities of the
earth’s surface by determining the relative heights of any number of points
above or below a line equidistant at every point from the earth’s center. This
line is what is understood by the term ‘‘a level-line,’’ and is that which is
assumed by the surface of the water when at rest. In mapping the contours
of parts of the earth not covered with water, after the principal contour lines
are drawn on the topographical sheet, intermediate lines may, with the ground
before the eye, be sketched in; but such interpolations are obviously impos-
sible when tracing the contour lines of a basin filled with water, as in hydro-
graphy, where a series of points in the curves of equal depths are brought
out only by lines of levels made with the sounding-line. Now, since these
lines of equal depths are analogous to contour lines on land—being contour-
lines of the bottom of the water-basin, drawn through those points where the
reduced soundings are equal—the same rule hence obtains in hydrography as
in topography for the directions of the lines of levels for developing them—
viz., perpendicular and parallel to the strike or dip of the bottom, i. e., one
system of sounding-lines coincident with, and another at right angles to the
lines of the steepest declivity of the bottom. The lines run in the general
directions of the curves of equal depths, or horizontal curves, are the main
lines in developing the contours of the bottom; yet the auxiliary lines which
should be run perpendicular to these not only check these depths, but also
furnish additional data for drawing these curves of equal depths. At a cross-
ing of these lines the difference of the soundings should not be more than
three per cent., and the limit of error must not exceed five per cent. of the
depth.

To form some idea of the general configuration of the bottom of a body of
water, we must call in every available aid; as, the topography and geology of
the adjacent coast, the effects of currents, tides, and prevailing winds, and,
most of all, the revelations of our lead-line, which assist us in judging of the
topography of the parts yet unsounded, and hence better fix upon the direc-
tions of the lines to be run. The force and directions of winds and currents
and qualities of the vessel must of course be considered in laying out direc-
tions of sounding-lines. And the greater discretion exercised in giving direc-
tions to these lines the fewer in number will it require to bring out the bottom’s
varied features in the length and breadth of their modulation. The number
of lines required depends upon the extent of the information to be furnished
by the chart. ;

If for purposes of general navigation, the soundings on the map will be
sufficiently numerous when the horizontal curves (viz., fathom and _ half
fathom, up to three fathoms, and inside of that, feet curves) can be drawn
without doubt as to their directions in any case. As to the frequency of the
casts, where the bottom is very irregular, are wanted not casts at studiedly
regular intervals, but every possible sounding.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 85

Whether it is the demands of the navigator or the marine engineer that are
being satisfied, along with these contour lines of the bottom are required the
materials of which the bottom consists, the level, rise and fall of the water,
the directions and speeds of its currents, and at times, the temperatures and
specific gravities of the water. The accuracy of the methods and instruments
for executing these surveys also varies with the amount of detailed inform-
ation required. If the survey be made for the erection of a breakwater, in-
stead of purposes of general navigation, then are desired nicer instruments
for observations, more well-determined signals, more cast positions deter-
mined, more soundings on a line and more lines of soundings, more specimens
of bottom and more current observations. In every case, however, the whole
ground should ke gone over thoroughly to bring out the general features of
the bottom and detect each sudden irregularity of depth, which should be
traced through its every line of approach, and if it proves to be an isolated
knoll or ridge, it may be ‘‘ rayed off’’ by planting one or more temporary
buoys on it, and to and from them running radii in different directions.
However, as these radial lines are often insufficient to bring out its every
feature, others may be run at right angles to them. Yet for general purposes
of navigation the general features and extent of a reef and the shoalest cast on
it are found amply sufficient. As each sounding is taken, the surveyor notes
its depth and also the time which fixes its position with reference to other
points on the line determined by either sextant, theodolite or compass angles
on known fixed points.

The degree of precision with which the positions of the sounding-boat are
fixed determines the accuracy, and hence usefulness, of a hydrographic sur-
vey. To fix the position of the sounding-boat, under every variety of circum-
stances, is, therefore, the all-important problem in practical hydrography,
and the method most universally relied upon by the hydrographer for deter-
mining his boat’s position, is that by the three-point problem.

This problem is wide in its application, accurate in its determinations, and
most simple in its graphic solutions. The simultaneous observation of the
two angles subtended by three signais fix the place of observation under
every possible contingency—except when it is on the circle passing through
these three signals—i. e., when the three circles of position are coincident.
The accuracy of the determination of positions by this problem depends
mainly upon the relative positions of the signals and the observer, and the
size of the observed angles—being the very best where the signals are equi-
distant from the observer, and subtending angles of 120 degrees. The three
signals in a straight line, is a favorite location with many hydrographers, as it
offers but one case of indetermination, and that very easily avoided, of being
on the straight line passing through them. Butin general a most desirable
location is where the circle through the three signals is convex towards the
observer, and the middle one is the nearest of the signals, for then ‘‘a revol-
ver’ isimpossible. Other things being equal, it is better to ‘‘ angle on ’’ the
more distant objects which subtend good-sized angles—say from 45 to 135
degrees—for not only is the parallax of the sextant then less, but an error

86 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

made in getting an exact coincidence of the images of the signals is then less
felt by the angles than if the signals were near or the angles very acute.

And besides what is thus told by the relative positions of the signals, the
hydrographer should be able to read the tale which the size of the observed
angles tell’of a position’s fixedness. If the sum of the observed angles equals
180 degrees or more, then the observer is sure he is not on the circle of
indetermination. But if this sum is less than 180 degrees, and equal, or
nearly so, to the supplement of the angle subtended at the middle signal
by the other two, then the position is not determined. By having these
supplements written about the signals, between the proper lines, on the field-
sheet, we can by a mental summing of the observed angles tell (without
plotting) whether we are too near the circle to get a good determination; and
may thus catch other angles that better fix our position.

The three-point problem finds in the three-arm circular protractor an accu-
rate, simple and most expeditious graphic solution, which is most extensively
used in plotting positions of the sounding-boal. In practice the observed
angles are set off on the proper lines of the protractor, and the fiducial edges
of its arms caused to traverse the three points representing the signals
observed upon, and the center dotted, and the position is plotted. If breakers
denoting danger be observed at a time when it is impossible to anchor over
them, or even approach them to fix a buoy to mark their locality, their position
may be marked quite accurately by pulling around them and getting cross
ranges (or cross magnetic bearings) of prominent objects on shore, so dis-
posed as to guide the observer to the spot in more favorable weather, when a
perfect calm may leave no trace whereby the danger can be recognized.

Henry Edwards submitted the following:

Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No. 11.—List of the Sphingidze
of California and Adjacent Districts, with Descrip-
tions of New Species.

BY HENRY EDWARDS.

As the value of local lists is fully recognized by entomologists, I propose,
in the present paper, to furnish a complete catalogue of the species of this
interesting group of Lepidoptera, as far as known to me to inhabit the Pacific
Coast, and to offer descriptions of what appear to me to be forms as yet un-
recognized by science. The number of species, compared with those of the
Eastern States, is but small, but extended exploration of our little known
mountains and valleys may furnish us with others, while it is more than
probable that many of those from Northern Mexico may yet be found within
our borders; and, acting upon this belief, I have introduced the description
of an exquisite species from the region of the Sierra Madre, which may some
day have to be included in our lists. I have followed the arrangement pro-
posed by Messrs. Grote and Robinson in their catalogue of Lepidoptera,
(No. 1, Am. Entom. Soc., 1868,) and have invariably adopted the generic

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 87

terms of those authors. The notices of the habits and localities of the spe-
cies are from my own observation, and for them I am personally responsible.

Tribe MACROGLOSSINI.

Arctonotus lucidus. Bdv.

Head, palpi, antenns, thorax, and abdomen, yellowish olive. Thorax,
with the tegule a little darker, and edged narrowly with white. Abdomen,
with small anal tuft. Anterior wings, yellowish olive, with a darker median
band, not reaching the interior margin, and surrounded by an oblique rich
purple border along the interior margin, and obsolete before reaching the
costa. This border hasa rather brilliant metallic reflection. Beyond the
middle is a notched shade of olive, resting on the costa, a small linear patch
near the apex, and a Junate streak near the interior angle, of the same color.
Fringe of the exterior margin, yellowish, with the edges brown; that of the—
internal margin, purplish, concolorous with the oblique band. Posterior
wings, reddish fawn color at the base, with a rich claret-red submarginal band,
narrowing inwardly, and lost in the brown hairs of the analangle. Margin,
broadly reddish fawn color, the same shade as the base of the wings. Under
: fo eae a olive, with a ferruginous patch on dise of the anterior wings.

“Fringes, deep fawn color.. Middle tibiz, with four black, shining, palmated
spines, recalling somewhat the structure of the fore tarsi of (ryllotalpa.
Hind pair, with two spines, fawn color, clothed with hair.

Expanse of wings, 2.00 inch.

Length of body, 1.00 inch.

Coll. Dr. Behr, Sacramento. H. E., Oregon.

I have taken the liberty to redescribe this very rare Sphinx, as Dr. Boisdu-
val’s description is both brief and vague, and as I have had the good fortune,
recently, to examine six specimens of this little known insect, which were
forwarded to me from the Dalles, Oregon, for the most part in excellent con-
dition. At present, this is certainly one of the rarest species known to Amer-
ican entomologists. I have followed Mr. Grote in placing this genus in the
present group, though not without misgivings, as its general structure, par-
ticularly the form of its antennz, its long body clothing, and its extremely
short tongue, seem, as Clemens observes, to point out its proximity to the
Bombycide. It has been piaced by this author, and by Walker, at the ex-
treme end of the Sphingide.

Hemaris Thetis. Bdv.

Through the kindness of my friend, Mr. Grote, I have recently had the op-
portunity of examining Boisduval’s type specimens of this species, the for-
mer gentleman’s admirable description (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., Vol. 1, 1868)
rendering further notice of it unnecessary. I should, however, observe, that
in fresh specimens there is always present on the hind tibize a bunch of long,
pale yellow hairs, which are not visible in the somewhat worn and faded type
specimens. ‘lhe presence of the reddish apical spot in the anterior wings is,
I think, byno means a safe character, asin any one of my specimens it is

88 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

quite apparent, while in two others it is entirely absent. This species may,
‘however, be always known by the thoracic and abdominal clothing, which is
invariably dull olivaceous, with a brownish tinge, and is extended without
any break to the yellow pre-anal segments. H. Thetis is found in the valleys
of California, chiefly in the neighborhood of the Coast Range, and may be
sought for, in May and June, in Napa, Sonoma, and Marin Counties. Itis
especially attached to the flowers of various species of Lupinus.
Coll. H. E., (exactly agreeing with Boisduval’s type) Dr. Behr, et al.

Hemaris rubens, n. sp. (?) Hy. Edw.

Under this name, if a true species, I wish to recognize two specimens, in
my collection, in which the apical red mark is very distinct above and below,
the oblique scale patch at the base of the primaries reddish, and the costa
and margins of the wings on the lower side also with a decided reddish hue.
In H. Thetis, the two pre-anal segments alone are yellowish, but in the two
specimens referred to above, the yellow is carried on to the third segment,
dorsally and beneath, but is interrupted on the sides by a black band. This
appears to me to be a strong character, as in my examples of Thetis the yel-
low shade is distinctly confined to the two pre-anal segments. Slightly
smaller than Thetis. The tuft of yellow hairs on the hind tibiz is present in
this species.

Oregon, Lord Walsingham. Lake Tahoe, Cal., Mrs. Hy. Edwards. Coll.
H. E.

Hemaris cynoglossum, n. sp. Hy. Edw.

Size of H. Thetis. Head above, pale yellowish olive; eyes, margined behind
with white scales. Palpi, pale yellowish, with the terminal joint tipped with
black. Thorax above, bright greenish olive, without the brown tint observable
in Thetis. Basal segments of abdomen, rich velvety black. Two pre-anal
segments, pale yellowish, with a darker median shade. The under side of
abdomen, including the anal tuft, is wholly black, except the edges of the
pre-anal segments, which are pale lemon yellow. The thorax is less covered
beneath with yellowish hairs than in Thetis, and the pale scales are hardly
visible at the base of the wings, while the tufts of yellow hairs on the tibia,
so eminently characteristic of Thetis, are here wholly wanting. The wings
above and below are similar to the allied species, but are decidedly more
opalescent, giving out a most beautiful bluish reflection. Antenne, blue
black. The fore wings are a little sharper at the apex than those of Thetis.

Two 6’, two , Coll. Hy. Edw., taken by myself on flowers of Cynoglossum
grande, Dougl.; Napa County; Big Trees, Calaveras County, Cal.; Vancouver
Island.

The species of the genus Hemaris are very closely allied, and can be
separated only by characters which in other genera would hardly be deemed
sufficient to indicate a difference of species. I think, however, that the
absence of colored hairs on the basal segments of the abdomen, and of the
pencils of yellow hairs on the hind tibiz, will serve as good grounds for

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 89

separating this form from its allies. The differences between them are very
apparent in a series of each.

Hemaris palpalis. Grote.

Taken at Gilroy, Santa Clara County, by the late G. R. Crotch. Its chief
difference from Thetis seems to be in the darker shade of the labial palpi.

It is somewhat remarkable that no species of Mr. Grote’s genus Hemorrhagia
has yet been discovered on the Pacific Coast, more especially as in the Atlantic
States the species are more numerous than those of Hemuaris.

Aillopos tantalus. Hubner.

This fine insect is not rare in the neighborhood of Mazatlan and other
portions of Northern Mexico, and I have seen a specimen taken at Cape St.
Lucas, Lower California. It may, therefore, yet be found within our limits.

Euproserpinus Phaeton. G. & R.

= Macroglossa Erato. Bois.

This exquisite little species, so rare at present in collections, appears to be
found only in the vicinity of Los Angeles, two specimens in the collection of
Dr. Behr and the original types in that of Dr. Boisduval having been obtained
from that locality. Itis said to be an early insect, and probably disappears
with the flowers of the spring.

Proserpinus Clarkiee. Bois.

As the delicate green tint of this beautiful insect fades very quickly, I
subjoin the following description from a very fresh specimen, taken during
the past summer, in which the original coloris at present admirably preserved.
It will be seen that both Clemens’ and Boisduval’s descriptions give a wrong
idea of the color of the insect.

Head, greenish olive above, whitish beneath; labial palpi,. whitish, with
green tinge. Eyes and tongue, brownish black. Antenne, black above,
reddish beneath; terminal spinule, white, with the extreme hook yellowish
brown. Thorax above, greenish olive, whiter at the sides and beneath.
Abdomen, greenish olive with a white tinge, except the three anal and the
fifth segments, which are dark olive green, the anal segment being marked in
the center with a paler streak. Beneath, the abdomen is greenish olive, with
the segments edged posteriorly with white. Anterior wings, rich greenish
olive, the color of P._Hnothere, paler at their base, except towards the costa,
where there is a darker shade. ‘‘The median space is rich greenish olive,
narrowing to the internal margin, and enclosing a black discal streak.’’
Behind this band, and resting on the internal margin, is a pinkish shade, not
visible in old specimens, and beyond this is a rich olivaceous band, spreading
to and widening out upon the costa, the outer edge being somewhat notched.
Fringe of the anterior wings, olive green, tipped with black Posterior wings,
bright orange yellow, with a broad and moderately regular black marginal
band. Fringes, yellowish white. Underside of wings, wholly olivaceous green,
darkest at the base. Across the dise of the posteriors is a slightly waved

90 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

whitish band. The discal streak of the anteriors is scarcely visible. Feet
and legs, whitish green.

Not rare in the northern portion of California and southern Oregon. A
number of specimens were taken by Lord Walsingham, near Fort Klamath,
and it occurs not unfrequently, in May and June, throughout the Coast Range
and the Sierra Nevada. It appears to delight in the flowers of the various
species of (ilia. Dr. Boisduval says that his specimen was raised from the
caterpillar by the late Mr. Lorquin. Itis a matter of regret that we possess
no record of its earlier stages.

This is undoubtedly the species referred to by Mr. Grote in Bull. Buffalo N.
H. Soc., 1874, as Lepisesia Victoriw, the description having been evidently
drawn up from a somewhat faded specimen.

Proserpinus Terlooii, n. sp. Hy. Edwards. : r

Head and palpi, yellowish olive. Eyes, black. Antenne, dark olive;
pectinations, brown; hooked tip, white. Thorax and abdomen, yellowish
olive, the former with some darker shading in front. Anterior wings, yellow
olive, greener towards their outer margins, with a median band of olive green,
widest on the costa, and a triangular patch, alittle paler than the band, resting
on the costa near the apex. Fringe, mottled with brown. Posterior wings,
dull claret red, paler along the costa, and shading into deep rich brown on
the posterior margin.

Under side. Anterior wings, yellow olive, with a wide central shade of
dull red, reaching from the base to within three lines of the margin, but not
touching the costa. Posterior wings, yellow olive, with indistinct waved me-
dian band of a little darker color.

Expanse of wings, 1.65 inch.

Length of body, 0.70 inch.

Two 3 Coll. Dr. Behr, taken near Mazatlan, Mexico, by the late Baron
Terloo, to whom, at Dr. Behr’s request, I dedicate this interesting species.

Tribe CHASROCAMPINI.

Cherocampa procne. Clemens.

I can learn nothing whatever of this insect, and think some error must have
occurred as to its locality. Is it known that the type specimen is in existence,
and, if so, where?

Deilephila chameenerii. Harris.

This species, which I am disposed to regard as different from (alii of
Europe, is not uncommon in Vancouver Island, and has been occasionally
taken in Oregon and Northern California. It would satisfy many entomolo-
gists if a long series of this insect could be raised from the caterpillar, through
a succession of years, as by these means alone can we arrive at a certain con-
clusion as to its value as a species. It seems to me to be a much heavier and
more clumsy-looking insect than (alii, and its general color is considerably

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 91

darker. But it appears somewhat absurd to claim for this the rank of a
species, and deny the same position to its congener, which follows, as between
Daucus and Livornica more really serious differences exist than between
Chameenerii and Galii.

Deilephila Daucus. Cramer. '

This is perhaps the most common of all the Sphingide: of the Pacitic Coast,
being found from May to August in almost every garden, hovering about
flowers, especially those of Verbena. The caterpillar, though well known,
has never, to my belief, been described or figured. It feeds on various species
of Rumex, Epilobiuwm and Polygonum. The additional white stripes upon the
thorax certainly give this a wide separation from Livornica of Europe, while
there is considerable difference in the shape of the median oblique band of
the anterior wings. Ina specimen of Livornica from Italy, and also in one
from the White Nile (both in my collection), this line is broader than in the
American specimens, and, as it reaches the internal margin, spreads inwardly
further towards the base of the wing. The costal markings also are more
decided in the European and African specimens, and the marginal band of
the posterior wings is certainly much narrower.

Philampelus Linnei. G. & BR.

A fine specimen of this very handsome species exists in Dr. Behr’s collection.
It was taken by the late Baron Terloo in the northern part of Sonora, Mexico,
at the base of the Sierra Madre.

Philampelus Achemon. Harris.

Very common, in some seasons, in the valleys of Napa and Sonoma Coun-
ties, where the caterpillar is exceedingly injurious to the vines. In the sum-
mer of 1874, at St. Helena, Napa County, over ten bushels of caterpillars
were gathered from one vineyard, only four acres in extent, in the course of
two days. I can perceive no difference whatever between the California spec-
imens and those from the Eastern States.

Tribe SMERINTHINI.

Smerinthus ophthalmicus. Bdv.

Formerly rather common in the vicinity of San Francisco, but owing to the
drainage of large districts, and the consequent destruction of the willows on
which the caterpillars fed, it has become quite a rare species. In the foot-
hills of the Sierras and the Coast Range, as well as in Oregon and Vancouver
Island, it is occasionally met with, and a strongly marked variety is also
found, which I have called

Smerinthus pallidulus, var. Hy. Edw.

It differs from the typical form by its much paler color, as well as by the
almost obsolete markings of the upper wings. The general color of these is a

92 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

pale fawn drab, with the waved band indistinct. The thorax is also much
paler, and the median patch of this portion much narrower and less defined.

Mr. Strecker’s figure of the 9 in Lepid. Rhop. et Heter. refers to this
variety.

Smerinthus modestus. Harris.

Another very remarkable instance of departure from the specific type is
found in our examples of this species, all of which are very large in size, the
smallest I have seen being upwards of five inches in the expanse of wing, the
specimens from the Atlantic States rarely measuring as much as four inches.
There is also a remarkable difference in color, the western specimens being
much paler, the basal space within the median band being, for the most part,
of a delicate silver gray, which color is also extended to the thorax and abdo-
men. The white discal streak is also more strongly defined, and the suffused
reddish patch of the lower wings usually much larger. Knowing nothing of
the caterpillar, I am unable to say if any difference exists between it and its
eastern relative, but it is possible that in this instance we have to deal with a
new species. I prefer, however, at present to regard it only as a variety, sug-
gesting for it the name of

Smerinthus occidentalis, var. Hy. Edw.

Fort Yuma, Ariz. San Diego. Sacramento, Cal. Carson City, Nevada.
Dalles, Oregon.
Coll. H. E.

Tribe SPHINGINI.

Macrosila carolina. Clem.

As far as I am able to discover, this species was unknown in California
until the introduction of tobacco planting, a few years ago. It is now very
common in some portions of the State, particularly in the San Joaquin and
Santa Clara valleys, and promises to be as great a pest to the growers of
tobacco as it has proved in other parts of the continent.

Macrosila celeus. Hbn.

Rather rare at present, though it has been taken near San Diego, and in
Mendocino and Napa counties. The caterpillar feeds upon the potato, and it
is probable that, like the preceding species, this may be an introduction from
the Atlantic coast.

Macrosila cingulata. Fab.

I have seen only two Pacific coast specimens of this insect, one from San
Diego, the other from Santa Barbara. It is very abundant in the Hawaiian
Islands, where the caterpillar feeds on the sweet potato (batatas edulis).

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 93

Sphinx oreodaphne. Hy. Edw. (Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., July, 1873.)

My friend Mr. H. Strecker, of Reading, Pa., has suggested to me that this
may be only a small form of Sph. chersis, Hbn., and certainly there is a great
resemblance, excepting in point of size, the largest specimen of Oreodaphne
I have seen measuring only 37% inches in expanse, the smallest 234 inches,
while the average size of Chersis is 4% inches. The markings, also, even in
the most perfect specimens, are much less pronounced than those of Chersis,
and the general color of the insect is much paler. If, however, Mr. Strecker’s
conjecture be correct, the synonymy will have to be
Sphinw chersis. Hbn.

Var. Oreodaphne. Hy. Edw.

Sphinx perelegans. Hy. Edw. (Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., July, 1873.)

Iam inclined to think that this and the following species are only two of
others which will yet be found in California, having an affinity with Sp.
gordius and Sp. eremitus of the Atlantic States. The only specimen of this
species was taken by the late G. R. Crotch, at Gilroy, Santa Clara county,
and is in my collection.

Sphinx Vancouverensis. Hy. Edw. (Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci., July, 1873.)

Since describing this species, I have had the good fortune to procure two
other specimens, one from Portland, Oregon, and the other from the Big Trees
of Calaveras county. They are so strongly marked as to put to flight any
doubts I may have entertained as to the genuineness of the species.

Hyloicus Sequoice. Bdv.

I am only acquainted with one specimen of this very rare species, taken by
myself in Bear Valley, Placer county, and noticed in Proc. Cal. Acad. Sci.,
July, 1873.

Hyloicus Strobi. Bdv.

Dr. Boisduval is himself in doubt as to the locality of this species, and
without a careful examination of the type it is difficult to say whether it be
Californian or not.

LIST OF SPECIES NOTICED IN THIS PAPER,

PACE LOUISRUCICLUS DOV sae aici Metter tatoo aes) cei aee d wiglereiais California, Oregon.
FEA CHE TE RIE LIS Es NV iyatnle Vo es eID Diels Moss iniere ois del sien gress ois crere Fatale’ California.
IGM StRUUENS, “ELV. WGW» TSP ita sicsicee caccciaiesesecces California, Oregon.
Hemaris cynoglossum, Hy. Edw. n. sp. ........ California, Vancouver Island.
APO NIRM Rape BPE S VA EODE UY Jets eine e/a x'a!e =e 6\00 6) s xin d wie 6a ways wore gua eee California.
EN ODOM CONUS: FLU DINE ae ars oft ass s kicleisis)s c onessciaiee Sinamere Mazatlan, Mex.
Euproserpinus Pheton, G. & B Mio) cfotoleisp edie tore erase eis eisints sisiteet ols Los Angeles, Cal.

Proserpinus Clarkie, Bdv............ California, Oregon, Vancouver Island.

94 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

‘Prosenpinus: Lerloow, Ely dw. Ws Spies). slew) jelieleiayete ....Mazatlan, Mex.
Chierocampaprocnes CLE ny er -telsleys ie - Sfateistedsl eine enema aa) eae Loc. dub.
Deilephila chamenerii, Harris......... California, Oregon, Vancouver Island.
Deilephila daucus, Cram......... Arizona, California, Nevada, Oregon, V. I.
TEAL OTD CUS PLANT CI Ae Cram OGM eheyasa\s\ e)e/eis) 3: << ole trois teteeetatars Mazatlan, Mex.
Philampelus Achemon, Harris................. Pereisn oe . California, Oregon.
Smerinthus ophthalmicus, Bdv......... California, Oregon, Vancouver Island.
Smerinthus ophthalmicus, n. var. pallidulus, Hy. Hdw............ California,
Smerinthus occidentalis, n. sp. (?), Hy. Edw.. Cal., Nevada, Oregon, Arizona.
MACHOSUONCOPONTO CEM waa a's «\\+) 2 a)s)s1o/s<1 « lelelere sitet ets California generally.
MG CrOstlaCelenSamEl Mine eyes: ois sis os ss «sce SU EC ions California.
Macrosila cinguldtd, BAD... 0.6026 0.3. - San Diego and Santa Barbara, Cal.
Spline Orcodap nner mele, ExGNyia\ 2) o s)e.3.:< <ic\esb yore elise California, Oregon.
SPRUE Rneleg Otiss meEliy iW Clivv i.) a). .40 ets\eie «to: -veysaipereieis eretOen eee ener Gilroy, Cal.
Sphinw Vancouverensis, Hy. Edw...... California, Oregon, Vancouver Island.
Hyloicus Sequoie, Bdv.... LOVE Sicig. 3. chet sreleheiate rene ates Sierra Neyada, Cal.
LU LO LED SMS UL ODL EON, 2) cre aveyale Bch avatee so eve\., lla elaie e fe oumterelotevenrerstelerhenens Loe, dub.

Col. Geo. E. Gray offered the following resolutions, which
were adopted:

Wuereas, The California Academy of Sciences has learned of the resigna-
tion of Professor Daniel C. Gilman of the Presidency of the University of
California, and of his contemplated removal to Maryland; and

Wuereas, The important services rendered by Professor Gilman, to the
University and the cause of higher education, in California, are known and
appreciated by this Academy. Therefore, be it

Resolved, That the California Academy of Sciences expresses to Professor
Gilman its appreciation and approval of the work he has here accomplished,
its confidence in his ability, and its testimony to the energy and devotion
which he has exhibited in the performance of his duties as President of the
University of California; that we thank him for the services he has ren-’
dered to the cause of higher education, here and elsewhere; that we regard
his removal, so far as it affects this community, with regret, tempered by the
conviction that in the new field of labor upon which he is about to enter, his
varied acquirements, combined with many fortunate personal qualities, will
prove fruitful in benefits to the entire country; that he will carry with him our
respect as a fellow-worker, and our esteem as a fellow-member and a man.

Resolved, That the Secretary is hereby instructed to transmit a copy of the

foregoing to Professor Gilman, and to the Trustees of the Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity at Baltimore.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 95

Reevutar Meetine, May 2, 1875.

President and Vice-Presidents being absent, Dr. H. W. Hark-
ness was called to the Chair.

Sixty-two members present.

Charles Wolcott Brooks read the following paper:

Origin and Exclusive Development of the Chinese Race
—Inquiry into the Evidence of their American Origin,
suggesting a great Antiquity of the Human Races on
the American Continent.

BY CHARLES WOLCOTT BROOKS.

In searching for the origin of any race, the careful student is led to the
barrier of pre-historic ages, where, amid the scanty remnants of remote an-
tiquity, he seeks the missing links of a chain whose farther end has passed
from the vision of general observers.

All ethnologists must recognize the importance of reviewing the early stages
of religious belief current among any people, and laws governing its develop-
ment, in any systematic study of their earliest origin.

Every act cf man and every change in nature is self-recording, and although
it may require the wisdom of a God to read the record, it yet exists, capable
of being deciphered, and contributing to history.

With the advance of scientific knowledge, the human line of division be-
tween so-called historic and pre-historic ages is gradually receding. Science
and historical criticism are opening many fields long hid in myth and con-
jecture. Much now classed as ancient mythology is but the lingering rem-
nants of very ancient history, preserved and distorted by tradition. Most
ancient nations in their written histories, have aimed as far as possible to
ignore all antecedent civilizations, claiming for their own deified ancestry the
origin of all men. Barbaric conquerors, filled with the spirit of battle, were
early deified as gods, their descendants accepted as demi-gods were founders
of reigning dynasties, and naturally sought protection by surrounding their
origin with the supernatural. Transformations are frequent in the mythology
of all nations, for religion, in whatever stage of its development, ever remains
a grand, progressive, moral science. Many ancient forms of pagan worship
glided silently into even Christian rites, when martyrs canonized as saints,
noiselessly replaced the divinities of former systems.

As most early gods were ancient heroes deified, their worship was a nat-

96 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

ural manifestation of a low order of patriotism, which selfishly detested all
nations but one chosen people. Each nation seems to have created its own
god in the image of its highest ideal. Early ideas of God have been success-
ively adjusted to the intellectual capacity of each progressive age, whose high-
est ideal has ever been the natural limit to its powers of mental or spiritual
conception, possible under existing conditions of development.
Modern science and its civilizing arts have refined our personal conceptions
‘and raised our ideal, by extending our limits of comprehension. Our own
conceptions of the Great Architect, the Intelligent Mind of the Universe, as
they exist to-day, are as much nobler than those of the ancients, as the mag-
nificent enginery of this nineteeenth century excels the rude implements of
early ages.

Notwithstanding this tendency to ignore antecedent civilizations, the most
ancient peoples of antiquity, at the period of their very earliest records, show
plainly that civilized life existed before their time.

In speaking of civilization at early periods, it is evident we cannot mean
that of the printing press, telegraph and steam, as known in the nineteenth
century, for no record of any such exists, but reference is made to a high
state of early culture among cities of solid structure, with foreign commerce
and mechanic arts, in contradistinction to barbaric, nomadic, or pastoral
conditions.

Great maritime empires existed in very remote periods; and both Alantic
and Pacific Oceans were crossed, and races and civilization widely extended
in ages still called pre-historic. Whether we study the historical records of
Arabian, Phoenician, Chaldean, Assyrian, Egyptian, Persian, Central Asian,
Malay, Chinese, Japanese, Central American or Peruvian nations, we are
amazed at the antiquity to which they lead us. Many oriental records now
in process of translation, throw much light on the early movements of races.
Asia in the far East was long considered the land of enchantment—a name
given by superstition to early science. Astronomy was cultivated in Persia
B. C. 3209; in India, B. C. 3101; in China, B. C. 2952; and in Egypt, B. C.
2800. Truly, wise men came from far east of Greece and Rome.

In Egypt, India, China, America and South Pacific Islands, evidences of a
primitive civilization are found, which, in some instances, must have run its
course long anterior to the age of Homer. Unmistakable traces of a primeval
and ante-historic culture of the human race in America exist to mark the
lapse of many ages of civilized existence. A knowledge of the western shores
of the American continent has long existence in both China and Japan. That
a restricted communication has existed by sea across the Pacifie does not
admit of question. When treating of the origin of the Japanese races several
historical instances of their early trans-Pacific voyages will be described and
discussed.

In comparatively modern times, enthusiastic specialists, versed in Hebrew
traditions, have sought to locate the primeval source of all knowledge and
culture upon the high table lands of Asia, where they pictured the radiant
morning of civilization as immediately succeeding the completion of a cre-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 97

ated world, perfected in all its parts, including man, the most complex being
and climax of creation.

In a search after the origin of any race, we are first led to define a belief
in the origin of man. I accept the hypothesis of universal evolution by a
slow process of cosmic development, from matter which includes within itself
the elements of all atmospheric, mineral, vegetable and animal existence, but
latent until its energies are quickened by that progressive life-principle which
ceaselessly radiates from the Great Intelligent Mind of the Universe, and is
everywhere essential to awaken development.

This hypothesis, clearly within the scope of human thought, is able to
stand the test of human reason, and now seems tangibly demonstrated, espe-
cially in the connected chain of fossils recently discovered and arranged by
Professor Marsh, which visibly illustrate, by an incontrovertible record of
natural history, the evolution of the egues or horse family, anchitherium,
hipparion, etc.

All material things appear connected together by gradational forms, from
the superior mental culture of man, the highest animal, to the protozean or
lowest speck of gelatinous matter in which life manifests itself to human per-
ception, onward through untold ages of mineral existence and cosmic condi-
tions, ever in exact keeping with its pace of progress. All things that develop
have life. Earth has labored to fit itself for the abode of man, and its labors
are progressing successfully. Man came by regular stages of gradation from
the monad, and his mental development keeps pace with and is restrained by
physical surroundings. Immutable natural laws, universally and eternally in
force, do not admit of any sudden, special creation of man, nor do they indi-
cate that all forms of animal life could have been created at the same time.
What has once occurred will, under similar conditions, occur elsewhere.

Man is the result of all inferior types, whose capabilities are within him-
self, making him a compendium of all created things. Fossil remains,
found in different formations, are plainly revealing the stages of progressive
transformation, each successive one having all the attributes of its predeces-
sor, with more added. Crustaceous animals are succeeded by fishes, running
into the saurian, thence into birds, next marsupials, followed by the mam-
malial, up to man. Animal development has unfolded, and is continually
improving as the physical conditions of the globe are improved and refined,
and higher conditions rendered possible.

Mind is an attribute of matter, each being instrumental and necessary to
develop the other. Goethe says: ‘‘ Mind cannot exist without matter, nor
active matter without mind.”

The man of cultivated mind has reached more than a mere physical being,
having developed within himself a portion of that superior intelligence, the
germ of which he inherits from the Mind of the Universe. The human
mind is unmistakably progressive, and progression is an eternal principle.
Hence, mind, the highest refinement of matter in man, is eternal. Our
greatest revelation from the Infinite is in His works, where nature matures a
supply for every want she creates. The power to conceive of immortality

Proo, Cau. AcAD. Sor., Vol. VI.—7.

98 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

therefore implies ability to attain it. This glorious truth is instinctively felt
and recognized by every branch of the human race.

The origin of man has been gradually, yet hastily, traced as the result of
a constantly progressive life-principle, awakening development in matter, suc-
cessively evolving from cosmic conditions, minerals, plants, and all the lower
forms of animal life, up to its climax, intelligent humanity. In man is to be
found the highest physical ultimate of matter, endowed with that further re-
finement, a moral and progressive spirit, capable of ultimately unfolding his
full physical and mental capacities. In human evolution, we can but outline
the origin of existing physical forms, which periodically change with con-
stantly modifying conditions. The immortal quickening principle which we
inherit, can only be traced to the Infinite.

The animating principle of all existences, appears like a purer and more
highly refined essence or form of electric force; equally manifest in mental
and physical development, and exactly adjusted in all its different degrees to
successive stages of progressive refinement. Natural law is universal. In
the material process of electrotyping, man follows Nature’s own method of
building up metallic forms. The progressive life-principle of the human
mind, in common with endless varieties of electric phenomena, manifests
universal consistency in the positive and negative phases of a subtle activity.
Some correlation with a Central Intelligence seems reasonably indicated,
whence these mutually radiate as developing powers; alike in kind, varying
only in degree, of force, purity and refinement.

It appears probable that the ancestors of the earlier types of mankind, were
evolved, by gradual development, near the oldest parts of continents, along
their central summits, upon such portions as first acquired a soil after emerg-
ing froma hot primeval sea. Primitive man, at first a speechless animal,
may have appeared as a distinct variety of the animal kingdom, in the case
of asingle pair, from which all human races have multiplied, and differ-
entiated according to the surrounding conditions of their local abode. If so,
the physical conditions of certain localities have been far more favorable to
the advancement of certain races than others, and early human history must
be by race and not by nations, as communities of individuals come but with
the first steps to culture.

Within the limits of races best known, languages and families of languages
are found, which preclude any common linguistic origin. It therefore fol-
lows, that if man constitutes but a single family in the order of Primates,
represented by a single genus, the formation of language must have com-
menced after the still speechless primordial man had diverged into races, and
differentiation had set in. With the development of ideas in the mind, how-
ever rude at first, and organs capable of articulation in the body, language
was a consequent result, under the operation of universal law. The Great
Intelligent Principle of the Universe pervades the entire world, as our mind
fills our whole physical frame. The manifestation of this principle we call
Life, which all things possess in greater or less degree.

Development is ever progressive, although mutability appears to mark
every advance, yet no breach of continuity has occurred. Every order has
proceeded by natural process from another antecedent. The superimposed

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 99

strata which constitute the crust of the earth, form a gauge of relative time,
for which human chronology scarcely affords a unit of measure. It is per-
fectly certain that during the cretaceous epoch, a comparatively recent period
in the world’s history, none of the physical features existed, which mark the
the present surface of the globe. Continents have undergone movements of
elevation and depression, their shore lines sunk under the ocean, and sea-
beaches have been transferred far into the interior of pre-existing continents.
All dry land has been submerged, excepting recent volcanic products and
metamorphosed rocks. These introductory facts are necessary to ethnological
research.

A cooling sphere, having acquired a solid crust around a nucleus of fiery
liquid, in parting with its heat by radiation into space, must contract, distort-
ing its outward surface by pressure, raising mountain ridges, and depressing
corresponding valleys, where the first seas became located. Sun and moon,
obedient to the law that bodies move to each other in proportion to their
masses, and inversely as the squares of their distances, attracted tidal move-
ments in molten fluids under the crust, in hot salt seas, and the thick unre-
fined atmosphere above. Fluids as well as other matter were more gross
during their primitive states. Rupture and re-formation succeeded one
another, until the primitive igneous period of angular azoic granite, became
sufficiently hardened to withstand the ordinary pressure of inward forces,
gradually preparing to furnish physical conditions, suitable to begin the evo-
lution of animal lifein its most elementary forms, corresponding with the
imperfect condition of existing elements.

During the mighty struggles of the unrefined elements, internal convulsions
sent the hot salt sea surging over a large portion of the surface, and sediment-
ary deposits formed new stratifications. Substances impregnating the waters
united in forming cry-tals. The waters, having raged from point to point,
were obliged to seek an equilibrium, and retired to the valleys, forming vari-
ous oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers.

In the early carboniferous period which succeeded, the extra nitrogen and
carbon were rapidly absorbed from the air, and the density of all exterior
elements greatly reduced. A period was thus established, where, under fa-
vorable auspices, and in limited localities, the very imperfect initiatorial
orders of vegetable and animal life appeared. Aninfinity of embryo existences
are contained within the crust of the earth, awaiting the slow process of
development. Life generated at the initial period was of the very lowest
order, unable to support or reproduce itself to any considerable extent.
From this threshold of progression, conditions became sufficiently advanced
to admit of the systematic reproduction of species; the age of spontaneous
generation having performed its limited duty in the general ripening of the
globe, may have ceased and passed away with conditions which sustained it,
and matter, within itself, matured the power to reproduce its kind, endowed
with a progressive principle, destined eventually to evolve its ultimates.
This hypothesis explains why spontaneous generation may have had its day
and subsequently ceased.

Crinoides, conchiferce, crustacea, polypi, and polyparia successively appear
as elements are advanced to the necessary conditions to sustain such forms of

100 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

life. The systematic development of flora and fauna, in successive ages,
extends in an orderly chain from their dim and distant beginning, to our own
time, through universal changes of atmosphere, climate, and oscillations of
temperature. A continual unbroken chain of organisms has extended from
paleozoic formations.to those of our day, governed by law that knows no
change. Each species has gradually evolved from its predecessor in an ante-
cedent age, by a gradual modification of its parts, culminating in the age
it characterizes, and fades away in succeeding ones.

Change is everywhere the soul of nature. The race which first acquired
the human form, and became properly entitled to be called Man, probably
ascended from one original type, which has since diversified, and may in this
age be divided into five distinct varieties (not types), generally classified as
Caucasians—white, Mongolians—yellow, Malayans—brown, Americans—red,
and Negroes—Dblack.

As white and black are apparent opposites, and science shows the white
race to be superiorly developed, it is fair to presume that primitive man was
black; subsequent nations, brown; their branches, red; from these sprang
the yellow, and thence the white. Under local changes of atmospherical
and physical conditions, of climate, food, etce., the original black became
modified to a permanent brown. In like manner one shade and color after
another became permanently established. As with complexion, so also with
stature, symmetry, and strength. Proper use develops, while disuse brings
decay. -

Some anatomists have claimed that color may be produced by the arrest of
utero-gestation, or is governed by its relative duration in races, thus ‘‘ causing
the ultimate portions of the blood to become so assimilated with the cellular
and serous tissues of the foetus as to render the body variously colored—
black, brown, red, or copper color.’’ Lusus nature have illustrated this fact.

The present of any race depends largely upon the physical conditions of
the soil they inhabit. When these remain unaltered, the race cannot advance,
unless it can develop, by brain power, sufticient ingenuity to overcome the
drawbacks to advancement; such as draining marshes, heating dwellings,
importing ice, etc., thus growing, in spite of natural restraint, faster than the
slow process of natural evolutionary changes would permit.

Modifications in different types of vegetable or animal life neither progress
equally nor evenly. There is no intrinsic necessity that they should undergo
modifications at all, unless conditions change, or in the case of man, who
invents ways of surmounting natural conditions. To him the extreme North
becomes habitable by the use of warm clothing, artificial heat and light during
long winter nights. By a restless spirit pressing him forward and a judicious
control of elements, he is enabled to obtain artificial conditions far in advance
of the physical condition of his habitation, and thus pre-naturally exalt and
develop himself and his race. With the loss of these conditions the highly
developed man would perish or relapse into a comparatively barbaric state, to
where his development would exactly agree with his actual physical surround-
ings.

Darwin unmistakably illustrates the tendency of all forms to variations,
which when once produced, join in equal battle to survive and supplant their

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 101

progenitors and all others. The fittest will maintain itself and the others
perish, the parent and derived forms being equally dependent upon their indi-
vidual adaptability to surrounding conditions. Thus, certain localities still
exist in the condition of ages long past, where inferior races yet flourish and
find themselves better off, more competent to deal with difficulties in their
way, than any variation derived from their type. While conditions continue
unchanged they remain unsupplanted by other forms, and their type becomes
very pronounced. Exact reproductions are rare. Amid infinite similitude
there is infinite diversity; and imperfection is a vast fact, which must always
be taken into account in all hypotheses. ‘‘ Animal beauty arises from the
perfect balance of physical parts and the rhythm and perfection of their
action.’ It is probable that no perceptible change has taken place in the
Chinese race for many years, because in that time the incomplete changes of
physical condition in their country have not admitted of it. Wheat found in
tombs with Egyptian mummies, when brought from darkness into sunlight
and planted in congenial soil, grew and produced wonderfully, but could
never have developed without a change of conditions. Change is imperative
to progress.

A complete knowledge of embryology furnishes an unerring record of the
origin and development of any form of animal life; for the embryo of higher
types, while in process of maturing, pass successively through a recapitula-
tion of all forms by which their species ascended by evolution to their present
condition. Since conception, each human being has passed rapidly through
modifications, the counterpart of the graduated forms through which his race
has been slowly built up, and his present condition reached. Thus, we have
a history of human evolution republished in every case of reproduction.

Man, as traced by his embryotic development, commenced, when in dark-
ness, the cohesion of two or more gelatinous molecules, impelled by a con-
stantly-progressive life-principle, united to form a microscopic zodsperm,
capable of preserving its new condition in a thick and heated liquid. The
proportionate duration of early life in warm water is revealed by the first nine
months of his existence, during which many successive but correlated forms
are assumed. Dr. Cohnstein, of Berlin, (quoted in the Lancet, May,
1875,) ‘‘has determined by means of the thermometer that the temperature
proper to the fetus in utero is higher than that of the mother.’’ The hot salt
sea in which early life developed, is here typified. The period of atmos-
pheric air having arrived at birth, emerging into light, his aquatic life ends,
and becomes terrestrial and aérial. New elements of food are supplied, and
the mode of nutrition changed. For awhile his food continues liquid, and
he sees, hears, and notices but little. By degrees he arrives at a conscious-
ness of the solid world, first rolling, then creeping, seal-like on four
limbs, then sits upon his haunches, and finally walks erect, at first trem-
blingly, then playfully, but firmly, at last. This reveals how nature required
successive physical conditions, to acquire progressive results. Each being
owes his present bodily form, to ascent through a parentage, each change
of which has passed away, after accomplishing its intended purpose, a cul-

mination reached by degrees, through countless generations of improvement®

In due time, children acquire teeth, and another change of food ensues,

102 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

and hair usually darkens. A second set of incisor and carnivorous teeth
soon mark another stage of progress, and youth succeeds childhood, bring-
ing an expanded development of bodily form, passions, and intellectual
power. No individual can reproduce until he reaches the full maturity of the
type to which he at present belongs, which prevents the race from receding,
by reproducing a lower type. Leaves grow out or drop off, but never grow
back. Nature never retrogrades; advance or perish is law to the individual.

Man can imitate any animal of his species, but no animal can follow man
beyond its developed powers. Many traits, exemplified in lower animals, are
successively developed in children, and overcome by proper control; such as
gluttony, cunning, and deceit—the latter a lingering trait of weakness, gene-
ral with inferior races. They repeat the antics of a very active and mis-
chievous race; their first attempts at drawing, resefmble the rude figures made
by our primeval ancestry and present wild tribes; furthermore, like “children
of the forest,’ our younger children have not reached the age of self-
cleanliness.

The impulsive ferocity of youth, and cooler maturity of age, are but char-
acteristic types of human transformation in the evolutionary procession.
Our lives acquire a double significance, when we find we are building an
inheritance for every one of our descendants, while our race continues. -

In our growth, we re-evolve, concisely, the story of our race’s lineage, as
in ‘‘the house that Jack built,” each succeeding verse comprehends all its
predecessors. Our present bodies now barely float; for, as man acquired his
upright stature, his frame must have increased in weight and hardened into
greater rigidity; while the pelvis, to sustain additional weight thus put upon
it, enlarged, thickened and increased his gravity.

The head of the human species seems originally to have been large in pro-
portion to the body, exhibiting a promising germ thus early advanced, a fact
to which the race may owe its present superiority; and, possibly, this early
development of the organ capable of acquiring knowledge, may account for
peculiar sufferings, visited upon woman, more particularly among the most
intellectually developed.

The highest type of man has been artificially advanced beyond the condi-
tion of some portions of the physical world. Miasmatic swamps are yet
insufficiently reclaimed by time, to permit a white man’s existence where
they continue. Their present condition would involve his speedy illness and
dissolution. Lower organizations, congenial to and in harmony with such
conditions of physical development, may exist and flourish there: but more
refined types of humanity, require the most perfected physical conditions, for
their perfect enjoyment and highest attainments.

Centripetal law has consolidated the Chinese into a positive and exclusive
people, who delight in ignoring the centrifugal or complimentary force, which
induces dispersions. They have long clung to unique customs and dress,
resisting change orimprovement. In their stereotyped form of frozen civiliza-
tion, differentiation has been arrested, and a peculiar type itensified. Un-
Alterable fixedness in forms of belief, and habits concreted by centuries,
furnishes convincing evidence of great antiquity. The black races are
ethnologically far less developed, and having no fixed belief to displace, are
more readily converted to any religious sect.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCEs. LOS

We cannot avoid admitting that the Chinese are one of the oldest families
of the ancient world; yet they are by no means the oldest. Until the seventh
century before the Christian era, they were perfect strangers to every form of
idolatry. Pure Chinese appear like a race absolutely distinct from nations
by whom they are surrounded, differing in physical characteristics of form,
color, and expression; in language, in their written characters, their litera-
ture, and religious observances. Unchanged by foreign conquests, by exten-
Sive intermixture with any foreign race, they have developed within them-
selves, preserving and perbaps intensifying their type; governed and civilized
by the principles contained in their own classic literature, and in their pure
and excellent book, the Chou-king, compiled fully 3,000 years ago, from their
more ancient literature, much as many suppose Moses to have compiled the
Pentateuch, or as Heroditus compiled early Grecian history.

China has her ancient picture writings, but no ancient idols. She has her
literature older than the Sanscrit races. When the great pyramid of Menes
was built, in the fourth dynasty of Egypt, B. C. 3893, we find one vast
and expanded system of idolatry throughout Asia, and the countries border-
ing on the Mediterranean, all worshiping emblems, more or less types of the
sun or solar principle, China standing alone—far back in the twilight of his-
tory—is a solitary exception on the continent of Asia.

Language is a test of social contact, not of race. Undoubtedly the first
expression of human thoughts were by configurations of countenance, such
as smiles and scowls, indicating pleasure, dread, or anger. With the inyen-
tion of complicated forms in language, capable of complete expression with-

out emotion, came deceit, frequently followed by loss of harmonious social .

relations, and developing combativeness. No primitive history, at present
known, conveys any reliable account of an aboriginal language much ante-
rior to that of China; although that of the ancient people of Yucatan and
adjoining American nations, as shown by picture-writings on their monu-
ments, appears to have been more ancient.

Both peoples, in common with the Egyptians, expressed thoughts by pic-
ture-writing and in hieroglyphics. While other surviving nations improved
upon this original style, by developing the phonetic; inhabitants of China
alone, became exclusively confirmed in their monosyllabic language, and their
manner of vocal communication, is still very peculiar and spasmodic
in sound and utterance. Their hieroglyphics, which, in early ages, expressed
a single substantial thought, were subsequently assumed as syllabic repre-
sentations, and became synthetic or compound forms of expression. Thus,
to-day, 216 Chinese radicals are made use of, in over 50,000 ideographic com-
binations.

To investigate this subject, requires extensive research in a multitude of
directions—physiological, linguistic, religious, traditional. geographical, and
migratorial—for it is often by their mutual comparison only, that satisfactory
results are reached. ‘The wider view we can compass, the clearer our under-
standing of general laws. There is in force a law of decreasing vitality, as
well as of evolution, both alike depending upon the refinement of surround-
ing conditions. Great disturbances have aftected the earth’s surface and all
living things, since the tertiary period, when our present zodlogy fairly started

104 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

into being. To all these considerations, must be added the ancient migrations
which the different families of mankind have passed through, under the
changing conditions imposed upon them by geographical and climatic neces-
sities, and thus a systematic arrangement of facts is finally indicated. Phys-
ical geography teaches us that of the two great elements, water and land, the
latter, which is matter in a more advanced form, is far superior in the animal
and vegetable life to which it gives origin; likewise, that low and swampy
land is fatal to health and the highest development of man. Geology and
Palzontology show this to have been equally true of the flora and fauna, in
ancient days.

Neither tropical Africa nor Asia are adapted to the Anglo-Saxon constitu-
tion; every while colony there has been wasted by sickness and death; yet
this is the native and natural climate of the dark races, who are there as much
at home as is the polar bear on the shores of Greenland. When at Saigon,
on the Meikong river, I was told by an officer of the French colony, that 24
per cent. of French troops stationed there died annually. The British occu-
pation of low lands in the southern portion of India, is scarcely more than a
military possession, so far as Europeans are concerned, who cannot long live
there, but would soon become extinct but for the constant influx of fresh
immigration. There, a European struggles for existence, a prey to fever and
dysentery, and is unequal to severe labor. White women, as a rule, are
especial sufferers, rallying but poorly from any illness. White men must
yield the tropics to the dark races. The reverse is also true; negroes are not
comfortablé in the frigid zone. The American residents of New England
States, as at present constituted, have a continual fight with existing condi-
tions of climate, and their survivors and descendents, now in process of
acclimatization as a race, are assuming a somewhat typical form.

Whenever we examine nature, we find a perfect adaptation of animals to
the circumstances under which they live. The constitutional temperaments
of the different races seem to vary. The dark races are less developed than
the white; they have a less nervous sensibility, for their physical organiza-
tion is less delicate. Van Amridge says: ‘‘ The dark races expire less car-
bonic acid from their lungs than the white, but transpire the fetid matter
chiefly by the skin.’’ According to Dr. Knox, the nerves of tbeir limbs are
one-third less than the Saxon of equal height. Great differences of shape in
the pelvis of different races, have been classified by Doctors Vrolik and
Weber, who thus report the four principal races: ‘‘The European is oval;
the American, round; the Mongolian, square; and African, oblong.”

The characteristics most relied on for the discrimination of races, are the
color of the skin, structure of the hair, and conformation of the skull and
skeleton. Transitions from one to the other are so gradual, that it seems
almost impossible to draw any exact and arbitrary line of inter-demarkation.
We now see the various branches of mankind confined to distinct localities,
mainly bounded by isothermal lines, with distinction of form and color, with
different social relations, religions, governments, habits, and intellectual
powers. Wherever men have migrated, they appear to have found and dis-
placed an aboriginal nation, and no record is believed to exist of any people
ever migrating to a land which they found entirely destitute of inhabitants,

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 105

in some of the various stages of human development. Adelung reckons the
total population of the earth as 1,288 millions, professing 1,100 forms of
religion, among which there exists 3,664 known languages or dialects, viz.:
937 Asiatic, 587 Kuropean, 276 African, 1,624 American. These are signifi-
cant facts.

Sir Charles Lyell is inclined to admit that an imperfect form of man was
living when the tertiary stata was deposited. Agassiz, who pronounced
America the oldest continent extant, measured the coral growth during a
given number of years along the southern half of Florida, which, he asserts,
has been formed by accretion during the geological period known as recent,
and must have required not less than 135,000 years toform. We may arrange
epochs in their order of sequence, but not of date, for in contemplating the
vastness of such a past, the mind becomes lost in amazement at the vista
opened into antiquity. The histories of China contain records of the past,
which modern chronologies have insufficient room to measure. The limits
of history are steadily receding, and Greece and Rome are taking their proper
positions in a comparatively modern era. Science is developing unanswer-
able proofs of the greater antiquity of the human race, than current ecclesi-
astical histories have been supposed to allow. Greater freedom in chronology
is absolutely necessary. No sound religious principles have aught to fear
from true interpreters of antiquity. Truth, in all its natural simplicity, is
susceptible of proof, and reason is its steadfast supporter. Nature’s own
religion is grander than any human conception. In the dark ages, mysteries,
miracles, and absolute imposture stood in the way of absolute truth. Evolu-
tion gives to the Infinite higher attributes, and more nearly connects him
with all created things. The God of the true scientist is grander and more
comprehensible to mankind. It takes us half our lives to unlearn and eradi-
cate errors honestly taught usin youth, with perfect good faith and intention,
which persistently cling to us until displaced by the sound reasoning
powers of maturer years. Hach conscience is but the result of its own moral
education. It is composed of ideas it has fed on. Many imbibe, hereditarily,
the opinions of their forefathers, and venerate them because they were first
upon their mind, which circumstance alone produces to them an unsophis-
ticated conviction of their truthfulness. None are free but those whom Truth
makes free:

‘*Most men by education are misled,
They so believe because they so are bred;

The priest continues what the nurse began,
And so the child imposes on the man.”

America was undoubtedly peopled many age’ before Julius Czsar landed
in barbaric Britain, and many of the colossal structures, whose ruins still
excite the wonder of the wandering Indians of Central America and Peru,
doubtless passed from use long before the Tartar conquerors in Central Asia
drove their hordes eastward, or Attila and his Huns swept his legions west-
ward, from the great wall of China and the steppes of Ancient Tartary.

Chinese historians assert that in the fifth year of the reign of Yao, B. C.
2,353, strangers from the south, of the family of Youe-Tchang, brought, as a

106 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

present from a maritime kingdom in southern seas, a great turtle, three feet
long by three feet wide, and very old, on whose back was written a history of
the world, from its commencement to that time, which Yao ordered
transcribed and preserved. Turtles have long had a peculiar religious signifi-
cance in Japan, and also among American aborigines at Copan, where a splen-
did stone altar of great antiquity, in the image of a similar tortoise, yet
remains.

Chinese culture, dwelling apart in the south-eastern extremity of Asia,
has developed and retained distinctive national types, coldly conservative,
while nations less peculiar, and perhaps more adventurous, rose, scattered,
and passed away almost by scores. The isolation of their peculiar civiliza-
tion must have resulted from the physical conformation of the spot they occu-
pied, encircled by protecting ranges of mountains, and forbidding natural
barriers.

Eminent Chinese historians, after describing the fabulous and mythical
ages, which are imperfect and idealized recollections of events, peoples, eras,
and civilizations; and renowned individuals whose exact history had become
confused, extinct or legendary, when their first authentic records of atcient
history were penned; come to the reizn of men. Greek history appears lim-
ited when looking beyond into Oriental records, and proves but a scanty
stream leading to a broad ocean beyond.

The deified rulers are naturally the most ancient, and are succeeded by
demi-god descendents, in a sort of middle age. The advent of conquering
heroes from a foreign soil, by introducing a new element into history, may
have changed the national era. A careful study of the various ancient his-
tories of the world has led me to infer, that, generally, rulers who are said
to have descended from the gods, were merely successful invaders of the
country where they died, and were there canonized or deified. Being born in
a foreign land, no local record existed of their parentage, and it was easy to
ascribe their origin to supernatural causes, while their death being among the
people whose traditions have come down to us, was witnessed and recorded.

All scholars experience difficulty in tracing up and locating ancient places,
as most of them were given new and foreign names, by conquerors and
explorers. Since the days of Tyre and Sidon, and the ancient and long
continued sway of the South Arabians declined, and gave way to the rise of
great monarchies in Western Asia and India, places have received new rulers
and tuken new names. This is true throughout history, of all countries, and
is more recently illustrated to us, in the saintly names given by Spanish and
Portuguese explorers; or head-lauds and islands re-named for British seamen
and their patrons. A less troublesome impediment to accurate identification,
is found in translated names. *

The progress of science, and linguistic and historic researches, continually
supplements our knowledge of the mighty past, whose history must now be
worked back by degrees, and every fact capable of yielding testimony, pre-
served and utilized. Chinese records, extending to B. C. 3,588, may yet
render valuable aid in perpetuating much that was destroyed in the lost libra-
ries of Phoenicia, Chaldea, and Egypt. The first era of Chinese history is
without dates, capable of being accurately fixed by any measure known to us

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 107

‘

at the present time. So of Methuselah’s age. We cannot believe that the
duration of human life changed suddenly from hundreds of years to three
score years and ten. The change, if at all, was in the human measure. Dur-
ing our present century, the average longevity of Great Britain has increased
_nearly ten years. The true ‘“‘elixir of life’’ is a scientific knowledge of the
limits of our being, and wisdom to use our powers so as to obtain their
utmost capabilities. Wisdom is the best use of knowledge.

This early Chinese era consisted of three dynasties, who, successively with
their descendents, ruled the kingdom of China, whose dominion had not then
spread into an empire, and the aggregate terms of their reigns must have
extended over a long period of time. This period may represent the rule of
early Asiatic aborigines, developed upon the soil of China.

Chinese historians commence their second and more authentic era with the
reign of a sovereign named Tai Ko Fokee, or Great King Stranger.
He commenced his reign B. C. 3,588, and from this founder of their line of
monarchs, they have preserved a national history and true chronological suc-
cession of their rulers. His name seems to imply that he was a foreign con-
queror, who occupied the country, and doubtless, at the time of his conquest,
took no pains to preserve the records of superseded dynasties, which come
to us only in the form of tradition.

The pictorial representations of King Fokee which have come down to us,
represent him with two small horns, similar to those associated with the rep-
resentations of Moses, the Hebrew law-giver. He and his successor are said -
to have introduced into China the hieroglyphic characters for picture writing,
somewhat similar to those found in Central America, and from whence the
ideograms now in use are conceded to have been derived. He taught his peo-
ple the motion of heavenly bodies, the twelve celestial signs, and divided
their time into years and months, besides bringing them a knowledge of many
other useful arts and sciences. The sudden advent of so much new knowl-
edge, brought by one man, indicates that he came from far away—from a
country with which no previous communication had existed. As he intro-
duced a new measure of time, we can but estimate the duration of eleven
reigns which preceded him. .

Probably the solar day was the earliest measure of time; then, the lunar
month; and lastly, the solar year. The various words used in all languages,
and interpreted to us years, meant, simply, the periods of time which at the
moment constituted its measure. Thus, if Methuselah lived 969 periods of
time when the lunar month was the accepted measure, he died at 74% years
of age, which is not improbable.

The great Chinese history of Tse-ma Chi-ang, written B. C. 122, and pur-
porting to be an accurate transcript of all earlier existing histories, which it
was desirable to consolidate and preserve; narrates events, chronologically,
from the reign of Hoang-Ti, which commenced B. C. 2,697, when he was
eleven years old; during his minority the kingdom was governed by wise
and prudent counselors, who, it says, took great care of the young monarch,
and educated him in all the useful arts and sciences then known. It 1s re-
corded that during his reign physicians first learned to feel the pulse; the
magnetic needle was first used, pointing to the south; and civilization greatly

108 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

advanced. He lived a useful life, was greatly respected, and died at a ripe
old age. During a portion of his reign, a powerful revolt was successfully
put down, indicating a mixed race, with the antagonisms of conflicting opin-
ions. Five of his descendents succeeded, in turn, to his throne. Then came
Tai Yao, followed by Yuti Tsi Yune, B. C. 2,294, during whose reign a great
deluge occurred in Asia, which flooded fifteen provinces of China and drowned‘
great numbers of inhabitants. Some portions of the country remained under
water for several years thereafter.

This rupture of a natural barrier, which held in check some extensive inland
basin of water, existing at a higher level, occurred just fifty-four years after
Archbishop Usher fixes the arch-catustrophe of Hebrew tradition, and was
doubtless like the Noachian flood, a crisis in the physical history of the region
where it occurred. It ishighly probable that the great interior alkaline des-
erts of North America, where the successive water lines around the surfaces
of every elevation of its various levels, clearly indicate the former presence
of vast inland basins of water; have at some remote period been, in like
manner, drawn off and precipitated upon lower levels of this continent, in
their journey towards the common level of the ocean. This is also shown by
the presence of ancient river beds across the present summits of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains. Nothing seems to impede the execution of unerring
physical laws, and in the consideration of general history, natural science
shows no relation between such physical calamities and personal guilt.

B. C, 2,233, the next Emperor, Ta Yu, caused canals to be cut, to convey
to the sea the immense bodies of water which, during the reign of his prede-
cessor, had been precipitated upon and overflowed so large a part of China.
By this means many deep river beds were finally cut, and continued to be
worn away by the receding waters, until the whole country was freed from
inundation.

His eleventh descendent and successor was a tyrant, and was banished in
the fifty-second year of his age, and king Ching Tang came to the throne,
B. C. 1,766, and died 1,753 B.C. During his reign a great famine existed
in China, which the records say lasted seven years. Joseph’s famine in
Egypt occurred B. C. 1,707, or forty-six years after this date. These coinci-
dences are merely cited as suggestive to historical students.

It is desirable that the historical records of all ancient nations should be
sought out and compared; and to our linguistic and archeological students
on the Pacific, the early histories of China and Japan should be made the
subject of careful study. Much mental and social cultivation existed in Asia
when Europe was yet in her dark and undeveloped ages. China and Japan,
as well as all the nations of Asia, yet contain many ancient records, that may
well repay careful study, revealing traces of a civilization whose history is
incredibly remote. Ere the ancient respect for sacred records has become
impaired, and they are cast aside or destroyed in the ecstasy of a new-found
religion, or the mechanical wonders of a scientific civilization, earnest and
reliable students may acquire much important testimony among the archives
of India, China and Japan. Few ancient races have preserved a literature of
equal value with the Chinese. The great past of prehistoric humanity bears
traces of activity and commercial intercourse throughout Asia.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 109

About five thousand years before the Christian era, the Sanskrit branch of
the Aryan race invaded and occupied Northern India, while the Arabian
Cushites, dwelling in Arabia, held control of Southern Arabia. These South
Arabians held innumerable colonies, and were unrivaled in power and com-
mercial dominion. They early established great influence as a maritime peo-
ple along the coast of South-western Asia, colonizing much of the Asiatic
seaboard in the deepest antiquity,—not, however, including the present Chi-
nese territory, but exercised a widespread influence from the extremes of India,
even to Norway, acting an important part as pioneers in spreading and devel-
oping early civilization. The nomadic tribes of Asia have been classed as of
Semetic origin.

China, although well known, and mentioned in the ancient Sanskrit writ-
ings, under the name of Yama, was never included in statements of the
migrations of races and peoples throughout Western Asia, Hindostan, and
the islands of the Indian Sea. In remote antiquity, the Chinese nation ap-
pears to have lived within itself, cut off from active communication with any
neighboring people.

According to Arabian traditions, Ad was the primeval father of the pure
Arabians, and built a city in Arabia which became great and powerful. The
Adites are referred to in the earliest dawn of Arabian history, as enterprising,
rich and powerful, having great cities of wonderful magnificence. They were
skillful builders, rich in gold, silver, and precious stones, showing them ac-
quainted with metals. Numerous appliances of our civilization had their
origin far back in the obscurity of ages now pre-historic, and Adam may be
but the Hebrew tradition of the ancient Adites of Arabia, who must them-
selves have had a long line of ancestry, to have developed and acquired such
civilization, Adam was, perhaps, simply the ideal embodiment of a beginning
of humanity, typified to the Hebrews by an Adite patriarch, beyond the expe-
rience of their own history, into which he was adopted by Moses, as the
ancestor of their race. It was an effort to extend their national lineage far
back to an original First Cause. The distinctive Hebrew race descended
from Abraham, that magnificent sheik, the mighty Mesopotanian prince,
Israel’s ancestral hero and first distinctive Hebrew personality; great grand-
sire of the princely Joseph, Lord Chancellor of Egypt, Prime Minister of
the first Sesostris, and monotheistic chief of an illustrious line. Thus he
stands, in bold relief, on the canvas of tradition, as a great leader of
human kind in the period comprised in the first essays of Hebrew literature.

Our opinion of the general inaccessibility of China from other parts of
the continent of Asia, in early times, is confirmed by a passage in the history
of Besorus, relating the conquests of the Arabian sovereign, Schamar
Iarasch, Abou Karib, who reigned over Chaldea, and 245 years before the rise
of the Assyrian empire carried his arms, B. C. 1,518, into Central Asia, occu-
pied Sarmacand, and for a long time attempted, without success, the invasion
of China. Humboldt describes an Himyatic inscription existing at Sarma-
cand in the 14th century, in characters expressing, ‘‘/n the name of God,
Schamar Iarasch has erected this edifice to the sun, his Lord.’’ All facts go to
show that migrations over Central Asia, from Arabia across the continent,
must have passed north of China, (which country seems to have maintained

110 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

her individuality nearly intact), and reached the shores of the Pacific near
the peninsula of Corea, which is still inhabited by a populous nation, quite
unlike the Chinese race. Many aborigines of Central Asia were doubtless
driven toward the coast by these Arabian conquerors. These South Arabians
were a people older than the Aryans. The great ages of Cushite civilization,
to which we are told they succeeded, closed at a period which was very ancient
when the book of Job, the oldest book of the Hebrew scriptures, was penned
as a Persian poem.

Testimony is universal that the oldest nations succeeded older pre-existing
peoples, and generally received their highest ideas from abroad, showing a
descent of ideas as well as of blood. A constant admixture of races, peoples
and nations has been successively going on for ages. It is only in some
secluded spot that we may, at this late day, discover traces of anything
approaching to an early type, with slight recent admixture. Such specimens,
if they exist at all, cannot but be extremely rare, and, like the Miauts of
China and some remnants in the Tyrolese Alps, inhabit regions virtually
inaccessible.

The huge stone structures, cities and temples being unearthed in Yuca-
tan, argue an enormous early population. The ruins of Copan, and disin-
tegrating pyramids of Palenque, are convincing proof of a great pre-historic
race in Central America, at an immensely early period; which must have
occupied the same relative positions toward North and South America that
Asia Minor did, in remote ages, to Central Asia and Africa. The peculiar
construction of all the arches found among the buried cities of Yucatan may
lead to the discovery of races cognate to its early inhabitants. The same
principle of arch was used in very early times by Egyptians, Greeks, and
Etrurians.

Notwithstanding the frequent disastrous fires, and destruction of records
by conquerors and founders of dynasties, who have annihilated much valua-
ble material, China, Japan, and the interior of India have many copies and
manuscript translations of very ancient works and histories, long retained
among their sacred treasuries, rich archeological prizes for modern explorers
to unearth, equal in interest to the lost history of Iran, mentioned in the
Dabistan and other Asiatic writings.

By an extended research into ancient histories, many plausible reasons are
found, which argue the possibility, and almost probability, that some early
aborigines of the pure Chinese race may have crossed by sea from the coast
of Peru to China in an early or remote age of the world. Recent travelers
in Peru inform us, that its aboriginal races have, like our North American
Indians, become nearly extinct; and the only remaining trices are found
among the China-chola, a mixed result from Spanish and Portuguese ances-
tors. Last year my attention was called to an article in a South American
paper, describing the remnant of a race of aboriginal Mongolians or Chinese,
found among the high table lands upon the western slope of the Andes.

Pheenicians and Egyptians, who each received hieroglyphical characters
from a common source, originating in an older people, ascribe them to Taut.
The Chinese ascribe them to Tai Ko Fokee, their Great Stranger King, who
reigned B. C. 3588. Many curious coincidences point to the supposition that

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. LET

he may have brought them from Peru or Central America, where, among
ruins still existing, there has been discovered much early picture-writing,
closely corresponding to early Chinese characters, comprising the 216 radical
ideographs now used. Thus, heaven is expressed by three horizontal lines,
slightly curved; and earth by a cross within a circle. In discoveries at Copan
is a figure strikingly resembling the Chinese symbol of Fokee, both nations
representing him like Moses, as a lawgiver, with two small horns. Many
figures on Peruvian water-vessels, of great antiquity, are identical with those
found in Egyptian temples; birds’ heads, for example, attached to figures
resembling a comma, but intended to represent tongues; and other remark-
able coincidences. Either one people learned from the other, or both acquired
these forms from a common source. Many physico-geographical facts favor
the hypothesis, that it is more rational to conclude that Egypt received them
from America, through China—possibly through Fokee, or some predecessor
in very remote ages. Recent scientific explorations are reported to have
exhumed Chinese sacred mottoes, carved on tombs in Egypt—counterparts of
phrases in use to-day—revealing the existence of an intercourse when China
was ruled by kings anterior to Moses.

The present written language of China is undoubtedly an imported method,
advanced from such picture-writings as those of the ancient Peruvians, or
primitive hieroglyphical signs of ancient Egypt. Among some nations, men-
tal progress evolved a simple alphabet, while others remained content with
the increasing complications of ideographic signs, for syllables and objects.
Egypt, like China, was tenacious of her individual peculiarities, and long
retained her hieroglyphic type. She finally abandoned it, while China clung
to but improved it.

The South Arabians and their descendants, the Phcenicians, having an
extended commerce established throughout the Indian Ocean, with every
known shore, undoubtedly passed more readily into a simple phonetic alpha-
bet, better adapted to the practical wants of a commercial people. Tablets
have been discovered among their ancient ruins, by which the various
changes are readily traced.

Chinese characters, so long surrounded by the ultra conservatism of
an impenetrable isolation, have undoubtedly developed from these common
forms of natural objects, and subsequently been adapted to easy and rapid
writing, with a peculiar style of brush, and their manner of holding it.

The consideration of whether the Chinese people originally developed in
Asia or abroad, bears an important relation to the origin of the Japanese race,
the subject we are ultimately investigating and shall consider in our next
paper. In seeking the initial points whence migrations have diverged, we
naturally gather all possibilities, whence we select probabilities, in the hope
of finally eliciting absolute truth. We shall be compelled fo limit this already
lengthy paper to setting forth certain fundamental principles useful in re-
search; and to a collection of evidence, the full discussion of which will
necessarily remain for a future occasion.

Without, in any manner, endorsing the following hypothesis, we shall
simply aim to shadow forth a few possibilities, which the consideration of
many curious facts have suggested during the laborious details of an elabo-
rate search.

112 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

How came the Chinese—a people so ancient, so reserved, and so wholly
unlike their surrounding neighbors, or indeed any other race upon the conti-
nent of Asia—to be thus alone in this corner of a continent, walled in apart
from all neighboring races? We may reasonably doubt the assumption of
any spontaneous growth in the country they now inhabit. Conjectured
migrations among still speechless societies, at an epoch anterior to the forma-
tion of nations, are beyond our present ability to trace. We can only surmise
whether each continent evolved a type of manhood separately, or whether all
higher races have resulted from the various differentiations and dispersions
from asingle locality, of a common ancestor already developed up to the
lowest types of a speechless animal, tending to manhood.

Our best researches indicate an enormous antiquity for man on the Ameri-
can continent, and an advance in general form and brain capacity, with,
doubtless, a modification of color, since a very early period. In very remote
times, there appears to have existed at least two very distinct populations,
differing, in fact, more widely than any existing aborigines of the continent.
Portions of North America had been occupied by races far more advanced
than its occupants when recently discovered by Europeans. Originating,
perhaps, at a very early period in the elevated centres of the American conti-
nent, wave after wave of races may have rolled eastward and westward, or
northward and southward, to a certain extent, only identified in America
to-day by slight signs that mark the nearly extinct descendants of the people
with which they amalgamated.

Dogmatic theology retreats before scientific truth. No one will, at this day,
pronounce the self-registering records of nature grave heresies. They are
vastly more enduring, authentic and reliable testimony than the precarious
text of human narrators. It seems a crime against true religion to hang the
integrity of its moral principles upon the validity of statistics in any book
which merely illustrates, by historical parables, the early development of its
traditional ideas. The innate virtue of its pure principles is unharmed by
legendary or dogmatic absurdities.

The Chinese have an immense antiquity. They are a peculiar people, very
marked in their features, and have multiplied so that at present their popula-
tion and area of production are so balanced that any marked increase would
precipitate a famine, and thus equalize conditions. They not only practice
economy, but enjoy it, having learned in centuries to live upon the minimum
and enjoy the maximum of life.

All other civilizations and emigrations throughout Asia appear to have
moved from Asia Minor, and the high central portions of the North and
West. The Chinese appear as an isolated people, and have long preserved
the peculiar type of a race wholly unlike any other on the continent of Asia.
Their country is situated upon the south-eastern extremity of the continent,
and hemmed in on the west and north by a chain of mountains practically
impassable, and now made more so by the great wall, 1,250 miles in length,
with which, B. C. 220, they sought to complete their isolation.

If this people did not develop from the soil they now occupy, we must
search for the most probable mode of access by which their earliest ancestry
reached their present home. In this stage of the world, all nations are more
or less composite.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 118

The southern and south-eastern portions of China border upon the ocean,
and if the earliest Chinese came from an opposite direction they must have
reached their country by water. If so, it may account for their skilled boat.
men, who have lived upon the water from time immemorial, and for the enor-
mous fleets of junks, generally of large dimensions, which they possess. A
taste early cultivated may have come down through many centuries.

If we first seek for testimony from Chinese records, we find they ascribe
their own origin to the southern portion of China. In order to ascertain how
they could have reached there by sea, and the direction whence they probably
came, we must study natural causes, and seek among winds and currents for
the first natural distributing agents, whose influence on navigation has been
but recently overcome by clipper ships and steamers of modern construction.

The Pacific is a wide ocean to cross, and fair winds must have been relied
upon, for muscles could never have paddled a direct course for such a dis-
tance. Where, therefore, is the country, from which they could follow a fair,
fixed wind in a straight course, and be brought to land upon the southern
coast of China, where they claim to have originated?

We find in the South Pacific, between the southern tropics and the equator,
a perpetual trade wind blowing from the south-east. Towards the tropics, it
blows more nearly from the south, hauling gradually into the eastward as it
approaches the equator. This constant breeze would drive a vessel kept
before the wind, from a point anywhere on the coast of Peru, about in the
neighborhood of the Chin-cha Islands, by a slightly curved but almost direct
line as far as the equator in the direct course for the coast of China.

In the North Pacific Ocean, between the tropics and equator, the north-east
trade wind exists, as the almost complementary counterpart of winds in
the southern hemisphere, likewise blowing more northerly near its northern
limit, and uniting in an almost due easterly wind near the equator. Thus
the south-east and north-east trade winds meet, and frequently blow into each
other along a parallel line, making a continuous fair wind, uniting them
at the equator, and consequently forming an uninterrupted motive power, to
their western limit.

Now, if a large junk were started from the coast of Peru, near Central
America, and kept off before these fair winds, there is a strong probability
that in sixty days she would strike the southern coast of China, about where
early Chinese traditions place the origin of their race. This evidence, of
natural causes, apparently points to Peru as the possible home of the Chinese
ancestral race. What has Peru to offer in support of such an hypothesis?

In Heaviside’s ‘‘ American Antiquities,’’ published in 1868, we find that
“some of the western tribes of Brazil are so like the Chinese in feature as to
be almost identical.’’ There is thus a possibility shown, that the ancestry of
China may have embarked in large vessels as emigrants, perhaps from the
vicinity of the Chincha Islands; or proceeded with a large fleet, like the early
Chinese expedition against Japan, or that of Julius Cesar against Britain,
or the Welsh Prince Madog and his party—who sailed from Ireland, and
landed in America A. D. 1170, and, in like manner, in the dateless antecedure
of history, crossed from the neighborhood of Peru to the country now known

Proo. Cau. Acad. Sor., Vol. VI.—8.

114 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

to us as China. The very name, Chincha, has a Chinese sound, and reads
China, with two letters dropped.

For upwards of twenty centuries, Chinese junks are known to have been
large, fast, and strong; their people skillful mariners, excellent carpenters,
and marine architects. They early possessed the mechanical skill to build
junks of comparatively great tonnage, capable of conveying large amounts of
cargo and great numbers of passengers. If the measurements of Noah’s ark
are correctly interpreted, she was larger than any ship of our day. Ship-
building, as we have shown in a previous paper, is a very ancient art, known
long before the days of Tarshish. We have no history of its absolute incep-
tion. Monumentg on land endure to perpetuate the memory of a race, but
ships are of their nature perishable. A race that could build the magnificent
temples and pyramids of Palenque and Copan, in Yucatan, could certainly
have their fleets upon the Pacific Ocean, in ages long before any existing
record. The construction of a Peruvian or Central American fleet of large
vessels, in early ages, capable of transferring to China, if not 100,000 people,
certainly quite sufficient to establish a colony, would require far less skill or
enterprise, than that which raised the pyramids of either Central America or
Egypt.

China had bronzes in perfection during her very earliest ages, and may
have introduced them into Western Europe and Asia. Among the most
ancient relics found in Peru, are bronze and iron implements. Many Peru-
vian and Central American antiquities resemble, not modern Chinese, but
their most ancient writings and figures. It is not impossible that Cadmus’
alphabet, as well as the hieroglyphics of Egypt, may have been suggested
and developed from the ancient American hieroglyphics now coming to light,
showing such similarity and apparent connection, and which many scholars
already consider as the early models, not the results, of Egyptian figures and
Chinese ideographic characters.

The Toltec race in America had a god with one arm—so had the Egyptians.
The deified Fo—whom they represent with two small horns, similar to those
associated with figures of Moses, the Hebrew lawgiver—instructed Chib-ca
Indians in Bogota to paint the cross and trigrams used on their inscriptions;
and in China, the Chinese historians ascribe to Fohi many new things,
among others, how to paint identical figures of trigrams, like those found
among the ruins of Central America. With time and perseverance, it may
yet be discovered that a knowledge of hieroglyphics came from Peru or
Central America to China-—a people whose growing commercial intercourse
may have spread their knowledge to the ancient monarchies of Egypt.

The recital of facts may be greatly extended, showing a wonderful chain of
evidence, which it is hard to conceive can be entirely accidental and coinci-
dental, unless we take the extremely broad and apparently untenable
ground, boldly asserting that primitive humanity, through the action of
common laws and natural forces, wherever placed, evolves like forms, customs
and necessary results, irrespective of variable conditions and individual fancy
or free will. Chinese ideas concerning the Tchin, or original eight persons
of a supernatural nature who escaped from the sea, point to an origin from
beyond seas, or to an early piscatorial age. B.C. 3,588, Tai-ko-Fokee, a king
of China from abroad, was deified. China has her ancient pictorial writings.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 115

Fernando Montesino, a Spanish historian, who visited Peru and published
his work from 1508 to 1547, says Peru was thickly populated, and had a cata-
logue of 101 monarchs, with notes of the memorable events of their reign,
extending to B. CO. 2,655.

Hawks, in his Peruvian antiquities, says that before the Spanish conquest,
in the most eminent period of the dynasty of the Incas, the vast empire of
Peru contained eleven million inhabitants, which rapidly diminished, until
the census of 1580 shows but 8,280,000, and now the valleys of the Peruvian
coast contain barely a fifth of what they contained under the Incas. The
total present population by census of 1875 amounts to only 2,720,735 souls.
A light native is still called a China-Chola.

The feast of souls practiced in Central America appears to have been derived
from the same source as that of the ancient Egyptians. The Jesuits of the
Propaganda report these ceremonies as anciently in practice in China. The
ruins of ancient temples found in Central America resemble in form, space,
and massive walls, without roof, the most ancient temples of Egypt, and many
of the carvings are singularly alike.

Traditionary histories among the difterent groups of the Polynesian Islands
indicate that the Hawaiian race came there from the south. The Hawaiian
Islands are nearly in the direct line from Peru to China.

While the majority of Hawaiians are probably descended from Malays,
their early traditions tell us of the landing of men belonging to a race whiter
than their own, upon the southern island of Hawaii, many centuries ago,
whom they were at first inclined to consider as gods, but who finally settled
among them, and from their wisdom were elevated to high positions. These
men undoubtedly came from Central America or Peru, and may have been
from the ancient Peruvian empire, or the later kingdom of the Incas, or from
that early civilization whose traces yet remain in Yucatan.

It has been sufficiently demonstrated that even frail canoes and boats,
either by accident or design, have performed voyages across wide oceans. In
1819, Kotsebue found at Radack group four natives of the Caroline Islands,
who had been driven eastward ina canoe 1,500 miles. In 1849 men came
from Honolulu to San Francisco, 2,300 miles, in whale boats. And more
recently the boisterous Atlantic ocean has been crossed from New York to
Liverpool by a solitary man in a dory.

A dozen of the crew of the clipper ship ‘‘ Golden Light,’’ burned in the
South Pacific about 1865, just west of Cape Horn, reached Hawaii in eighty-
one days, in a whale boat under sail, and would have run upon the reef at ~
Laopahoihoi, but for natives who swam off to rescue these exhausted people,
all of whom survived.

While we have cited facts showing it reasonable to suppose that early Peru-
vians or Central Americans may have come to China, by the aid of continu-
ous fair winds, it is no less necessary to show the almost insurmountable dif-
ficulties which exist during a greater part of the year to impede their return
by sea. To beat back against strong trade-winds and the long regular seas of
the Pacific, would be a task in which they would surpass our best modern
clippers, which now can only make the voyage by running far north and
crossing from Japan to the coast of California, upon the arc of a great circle,

116 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

and sailing thence southerly, close hauled on the wind, to the neighborhood
of Tahiti in the South Pacific, which must then be crossed in an easterly direc-
tion, south of the trade winds, which in turn enable them to make northing
and reach the coast of Peru. Such a return voyage would require the most
skillful knowledge of winds, coasts, and scientific navigation, such as we have
only possessed in comparatively recent times, and would also require exceed-
ingly strong and weatherly vessels. There seems, therefore, less likelihood
that any Chinese ever reached Peru in pre-historic times by such a route.

Intercourse appears to have existed more recently, but how far it was recip-
rocal remains to be seen. If it was commercial it was more likely to have
been, as reciprocity is the foundation of trade.

In our search for objections to the theory we are exploring we however,
find other possible channels of return communication. During the south-
west monsoon a fleet of junks might possibly have left China and followed the
Kuro-Shiwo, or warm stream that flows along the coast of Japan, with sum-
mer winds across to the northwestern coast of America, near our own harbor,
and thence gradually have worked its way southward to Central America,
keeping along in sight of the coast until it reached the calm belt around Pan-
ama. The Abbé Brasseur de Bourbourg makes this statement: ‘‘ There was
a constant tradition among the people who dwelt on the Pacific ocean, that
people from distant nations beyond the Pacific formerly came to trade at the
ports of Coatulco and Pechugui, which belonged to the kingdom of Tehuante-
pec, in Central America. Baldwin tells us, in his ‘‘ Pre-historic Times,”’ that
‘the traditions of Peru told of a people who came to that country by sea,
and landed on the Pacific Coast. These may have been from the great mari-
time empire of the Malays, whose dialects have permeated almost every island
in the Pacific oceans. Lang says: ‘“‘ South Sea Islanders exhibit indubitable
evidences of an Asiatic origin.”’

The continent of Asia affords more facilities for reaching Polynesia than
America, although stragglers from the latter have doubtless added to its island
races, and thus created a mixture of customs which, to some extent, may in-
dicate a partial derivation from both. Probabilities favor Asia, both from
certain affinities of tongue, striking resemblance in manners, idols, and phys-
ical formation.

Commercial intercourse, although not direct, existed and was maintained
between China and Egypt, B. C. 2000. Chinese traditions claim for their
people the first use in Asia, of ships and the earliest knowledge of navigation
and astronomy. Their people first acquired the mariner’s compass and be-
lieved the sacred magnetic influence proceeded from Heaven, which they
located in the South, and from which they claimed to have come. To this
day the heads of Chinese compasses point south.

In Peru, the oldest civilization was the most advanced, and had the highest
style of art and mechanical skill. ‘‘ Her people had an accurate measure of
the solar year; a knowledge of the art of writing; and made paper of hemp
or banana leaves B. ©. 1800.’? The aboriginal Peruvians have had their
dark, as well as bright, ages in history. They may have retrograded while
‘their possible offshoot, the Chinese, progressed. Young colonies often
grow and prosper, while their progenitors reach a climax and die out. Dis-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 117

solution is the countercharge, which every material aggregate evolved, sooner
or later undergoes. Evolution and dissolution bring to us ever changing, but
eternally advancing forms, in their cycles of transformation.

The establishment of a race may be possible from a single pair, of strongly
marked distinctive characteristics, whose descendants have continually inter-
married. Hebrew patriarchs founded nations, and nations thus springing
from a single man of pronounced character, whose descendants remained
united and isolated, have often developed strong and peculiar personal char-
acteristics, which have pervaded and stamped themselves upon the race thus
descended. Mixed or cosmopolitan races, never possess uniform characteris-
tics as clearly defined.

It seems more reasonable to infer, that a fleet from the neighborhood of
Peru may have reached China with the first emigration, perhaps bearing a
hero-sovereign and an invading army, which, once landed, found China
agreeable, and, being unable to return against those perpetual winds which
brought them so swiftly, were compelled to establish themselves in new ter-
ritory.

Writers on Central America have expressed a decided opinion, that the
peculiar character of its ancient civilization, manners, customs, and general
structure of the ancient language, point very strongly to a common origin
between the Indo-Chinese nations of Eastern Asia and the ancient civilization
of America, which appears, in some remarkable particulars, to have heen of
an Egyptian cast. The Coptic or ancient Egyptian language, however,

-seems to have been monosyllabic. Hieroglyphic writing is of three kinds:
figurative, symbolical and phonetic. Hubert H. Bancroft, in his Native Races
of the Pacific States, Vol. V, f. 39, says: ‘‘ Analogies have been or thought
to exist between the languages of several of the American tribes and that of
the Chinese. But itis to Mexico, Central America, and, as we shall hereafter
see, to Peru, that we must look for these linguistic affinities, and not to the
northwestern coasis [of America], where we should naturally expect to find
them most evident.’’ Count Stolberg, quoted by Humboldt, is of the opinion
that the Peruvian cult is that of Vishnu—one of the Brahmin trinity—when
he appears in the form of Krishna, or the Sun.

Mexican kings, who reigned previous to the Spanish conquest, all added
Tzin to their names as a reverential affix. It resembles in sound a dynasty
of China—the Tsin dynasty—which reigned from B. C. 249 to B. C. 205.
Tai Ko Foki, the Great Stranger King of China B. C. 3588, or later Hoang
Tai, may have landed from such a fleet, and been called by conquest, or
through the reverence of superior knowledge, to reign over them. The
descendants of these early settlers may have remained clannish, keeping
apart, as an entirely distinctive race, from the Miauts or original aborigines,
naturally following the customs of their forefathers, and thus have increased
and grown into a mighty nation, unlike all people around them.

During many centuries of growth, China, like Japan and Corea, became
a sealed empire, when no possible admixture of foreign blood could occur.
It seems to have become an established habit with these nations to periodi-
cally close their ports to foreign intercourse. Some similarities of race exist
between some types of the Coreans and Japanese, while the Chinese are

118 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

quite singular and unlike. Their oriental peculiarities, which strike the
casual observer, are their dress, shaved heads and queues, habits, odor, and
guttural language. Chinese are the only nation on the continent of Asia
that use chairs and tables. Isolated nations, like hermits, cannot escape
being distinguished by eccentric habits. Now, if the high civilization of
Peru, which was in full tide B. C. 1800, and probably many centuries before,
crossed to China in very early days, bringing its accurate measure of the
solar year, and the arts of making paper and writing, all the necessary mate-
rial was furnished China for the production of correct and reliable historic
records. In reviewing Chinese early history, we have found that, B. C.,
Tai Ko Foki, their Great Stranger King, introduced a knowledge of these
things, with hieroglyphic characters, and first divided time for them into
lunar months and solar years. And we have shown that the authentic com-
prehensible history of China begins with his reign.

Now we inquire, did Foki, with all this valuable knowledge, come from
Peru B. C. 3588, and settle among a pre-existing people, perhaps similar to,
if not the aboriginal Miautz, long since driven from the plains of China into
the almost inaccessible fastnesses of its mountain barriers?

A knowledge of days already existed among the sun-worshipers of Asia,
who doubtless kept their records in days; but the introduction of a scale
measuring by months and years placed their history on a footing we can
comprehend; and the introduction of the art of writing enabled them to
perpetuate it by enduring records. When we discover the measures of time,
used to gauge ancient histories before these improvements were introduced,
we shall doubtless find their records reasonably authentic. We have as little
understood their stupendous figures as strangers conceive the value of a
Brazilian rea, some 1000 of which, make a sum equal to the United States
dollar; and accounts involving such currency bear the formidable aspect of
immense sums, to the uninformed. With advancing centuries, the measure
of time doubtless lengthens.

After the children of Israel left Egypt, where the solar year was known,
records of extreme longevity disappear, and ordinary terms of life are ad-
hered to. We should judge cautiously, and refrain from any interpretation
at variance with human reason and common sense. The lunar changes,
without doubt, were employed in the measurement of time in all warm cli-
mates before the introduction of the solar year. The colder the winter, the
more marked the year became as a measure of time. Day and night would
naturally suggest themselves as the first measure. Peruvians, Chinese, Egyp-
tians, Hebrews, Japanese, Polynesians, and others, all attribute great long-
evity to their earliest ancestry, until the introduction of higher mathematics
and the solar year.

The oldest histories preserved to us become what in our day we call au-
thentic, when their nations acquired the art of writing, and divided time in a
regular and uniform manner, by the solar year.

The first and fabulous epochs of most histories begin with dynasties of deified
warriors. The tendency to deification exists among all early nations, and we
need not go out of our own history to proveit. Edmond the Confessor, the
Archbishop of Canterbury, who died as late as 1242, was canonized as a

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 119

saint, only a differentiated form of the same tendency. The gods of antiquity
were partly impersonifications of natural forces, and partly deified men.
They often bear the same relation to facts that shadows do to forms, being
at worst but simple distortions of the truth. Few nations can examine im-
partially the substratum of their ancestral religious creeds. How often do
we find in dogmatic theology the imprint of early paganism? The Hawaiian
nation is supposed to have a considerable antiquity. From time immemorial
there have been persons appointed by the government to preserve, unim-
paired, the geneology of their kings, which in 1863 embraced the names of
more than seventy. Allow an average reign of twenty-five years, this would
throw their history back 1,750 years, to A. D. 117 or earlier, say to about the
Christian era.

It was a custom throughout the islands of the Pacific to exterminate their
enemies, either by killing or setting them adrift in canoes. The latter prac-
tice not only led to the peopling of the various Polynesian islands, but was
also a cause which led to cannibalism, for want compelled the exiles to sub-
sist on each other, and a taste once indulged in, was continued by survivors
who succeedeed in reaching some island, and thus cannibalism became estab-
lished. North American Indians have never been cannibals.

When Spaniards first visited America, the western equatorial regions of
the continent were the seats of extensive, flourishing and powerful empires,
whose inhabitants were well acquainted with the science of government, and
had evinced considerable progress in art. Roads fifteen hundred miles long,
remain in Peru, relics of the past, as ancient as the Appian way. In very
remote times social etiquette was observed and universally respected. The
early Peruvians constructed suspension bridges across frightful ravines, and
moyed blocks of stone as huge as the Sphinxes and Memnons of Egypt.
They built aqueducts of baked clay and constructed dykes and causeways,
and preserved a memory of past events by picture writing. They had a lan-
guage of ceremony or deference, with reverential nouns and verbs, with which
inferiors addressed superiors, a feature of resemblance to the Chinese in
Eastern Asia.

Ruins of extensive cities and fortifications are now found in Yucatan and
regions of Central America; the elevated plains of Bogota and Cundinamarca;
the open valleys of Peru; and the lofty, secluded and highly fertile tracts of
Chili. These colossal remains of ancient primitive civilizations are passing
from the memory of a degenerate offspring, who now behold with indo-
lent amazement these interesting relics of their illustrious predecessors. The
origin, history and fate of these powerful nations of America, who have left
behind them such colossal memorials of an ancient civilization, is a study
of profound interest. Stones, thirty by eighteen by six feet, are squared
and hewn and reared with utmost exactness. Their style of arch is peculiar.
Temples, pyramids, tumuli, and fortifications, with remains of buildings of
singularly massive architecture, often exquisitely carved, betokens a civilized
antiquity.

It seems impossible that these people should have passed from the conti-
nent of Asia by Behring’s Straits, for no traces of any such people remain
anywhere along that route.

120 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Pyramids of remote antiquity are found in India, China and Tahiti, as well
as in Egypt and South America. Those of Egypt are in the best state of
preservation and perhaps therefore the most recent.

The learned Bavarian, Dr. Von Martius, regards the evidence incontroverti-
ble ‘‘of the existence of the aborigines of America long anterior to the period
assigned in Hebrew chronology for the creation of the world;’’ a race whose
utter dissolution manifests that it either bore within itself the germ of ex-
tinction or attempted an existence under most fatally unfavorable conditions.

Dr. Clarke says: ‘‘ No race of human kind has yet obtained a permanent
foothold upon the American continent. The Asiatics trace back their life in
Asia so far, that the distance between to-day and their recorded starting-point
seems like a geologic epoch. ‘The descendants of the Ptolemies still cultivate
the banks of the Nile. The race that peopled Northern Europe when Greece
and Rome were young, not only retains its ancient place and power, but
makes itself felt and heard throughout the world. On the American conti-
nent, races have been born, developed, and disappeared. The causes of their
disappearance are undiscovered. We only know that they are gone.’’ It re-
mains to be seen if the Anglo-Saxon race, which has ventured upon a conti-
nent which has proved the tomb of antecedent races, can produce a physique
capable of meeting successfully, and advancing under, the demands that our
climate and type of civilization make uponit. This is an interesting query.

If we have been utterly confounded in contemplating the stupendous monu-
ments of Egyptian magnificence, which continue to defy the ravages of time,
what shall be said of remains of more ancient pyramids and colossal figures
in America, of a style and character analogous to those of ancient Egypt,
whose very stones are crumbling to decay, and on whose flinty sides verdure
has crept over the dust of ages, until ancient and gigantic forests have ac-
quired root-hold, and grown over their very summits? Many an Alexander
and Napoleon of pre-historic times has gone to his rest, and left no record,
capable of enduring to the age we live in, to mark the glory of his empire.
Many mummies are found in Peru, enveloped in bandages of fine cloth,
while the bodies of kings are admirably preserved by means of a secret known
only to the royal family.

In the far distance of remote antiquity, successive peoples have risen to
importance and passed away, long ages before the birth of those from whom
the faintest ray of civilization has remained to cast even a feeble reflection of
its pale light upon the fading pages of our most ancient historic records.

A period has undoubtedly existed, in the primitive history of our earth,
when the necessary equilibrium between its external and internal forces has
been lost. When the external pressure on the crust became diminished by
the sublimation and recomposition of external elements, which, when refined
and advanced, were unequal in density to the expansive force of igneous ma-
terials confined in the interior mass. The solid enveloping crust of our
spheve is the medium constantly acted upon, by these contending forces, in
seeking a state of equilibrium. Geologists direct us to many prominences
in which the upheaved strata, on one side, is abruptly broken, and on the
other, gently inclined. Such ruptures could not have been gradual, for in
places the whole combined strata is fractured, depressing portions, and rais-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. pe

ing others to immense heights. Earth’s surface, to-day, bears unmistakable
evidence, to every thoughtful student, that eruptive catastrophes have mate-
rially changed its geological features—especially the levels. Many areas,
formerly submerged, are now dry, and known as alluvial formations. Seas
have changed position, and rivers acquired new courses. New land has been
formed, and mountain ranges reared by upheaval. Recent deep-sea sound-
ings of the U. S. steamer Tuscarora—commander, Belknap—clearly illustrate
how largely the bed of the Pacific Ocean—once but an extended valley, run-
ning, perhaps, from the Arctic to the Caribbean Sea—may have augmented its
area by a comparatively moderate depression. During the glacial period, im-
mense icebergs were produced at the poles, and as they increased in bulk,
during a succession of cold winters, they accumulated an enormous volume of
water—human life is considered to have been extant at this period—and when
a succession of warm summers, produced by the perpendicularity of the
earth’s axis to the plane of the ecliptic, succeeded in reducing these huge accu-
mulations of polar ice, its volume retired, covering many valleys not previously
submerged. This could have given rise to the legend of a Flood, which may
have occurred, but could not have been universal, for a sufficient amount of
water does not exist to cover the highest mountains, and submerge the entire
earth.

A sudden and eruptive convulsion of earth’s crust during the tertiary, near
the close of the cretaceous period, whether separate or conjointly with a flood,
must necessarily have destroyed a large majority of partially developed men,
struggling to evolve the higher human types. Portions of Asia, Africa, and
Australia are supposed to have been elevated; while Europe, the extreme north-
ern portions of America, the Caribbean Sea, and the beds of certain oceans were
depressed. The eftects must have been most forcible around the poles and
south of the equator. Dead river beds which cross the highest mountain
ranges oi the Pacific Coast, and yield so largely of gold to hydraulic washing,
clearly confirm radical changes in the physical conditions and levels of this
coast.

The surviving remnants of these catastrophes, in Asia, Africa, Yucatan,
and a few scattering tribes of North America, thenceforth appear as the pro-
genitors of all living nations. It is only from this period that we can hope
to trace the early history of humanity. Previous beings, if in harmony with
physical conditions, must have been generally in the incipient stages of hu-
man eyolution. In Central America alone, we find ruins, whose hoary an-
tiquity seem to claim for its inhabitants the earliest civilization of which any
traces remain. It is fair to infer that the pyramids of Yucatan were antedi-
luvian and escaped inundation, as did the cities of Palenque and Copan.
These elaborately constructed cities of Central America exhibit conceptions
of beauty which, as early specimens of a gradually unfolding art, appear to
antedate all similar structures extant.

Plausible grounds of inference exist, that the earliest manifestations of cul-
ture known to us, was among the primitive settlers of Central America, who,
having acquired mechanical invention, art, and the rudiments of scieuce.

Proc. Cav. AcaD. Sci., Vou. VI.—9.

122 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

built dwellings and temples, which yet endure as testimony of their progress,
Although their minds were doubtless uncultivated in tho:e higher branches
of knowledge and refinement which ensures perpetuity to national life, they
seem to have led the world in the early use of language, and the adoption of
picture-writing to record and communicate ideas.

The sun, which was long the national emblem of Central American nations,
is the absolute basis of mythology. It seems probable that Yucatan once ex-
tended over the present bed of the Gulf of Mexico, including the West Indian
Islands. The Caribs may be a degenerate remnant of some aboriginal race.
The ancestors of our North American Indians were very uncultivated in their
physical, mental and social condition.

Long before Egypt, the progenitor of Greece and Europe, was settled, the
inhabitants of Yucatan appear by their monuments to have been well ad-
vanced in general intellectual attainments, and to have led all known nations
in art and science. Why may not a branch of this people have emigrated
to China and Egypt, and there have become a large and advanced nation ?

Many things unite to prove that China, at the opening of her treaty ports
to European trade, was unmistakably retrograding in the physical as well as
social organization of her people. Her highest prosperity is thought to have
been reached about the reign of Genghis khan.

Agassiz tells us that, geologically considered, America is the oldest con-
tinent. If so, why should we not look to it, as the spot where the human
race first gained ascendancy, and acquired its primeval home? If its primi-
tive races have died out, and stone pyramids crumbled beneath the dust, is it
not a strong argument in favor of her antiquity? In Asia, traces yet remain
of original races, whose earlier civilization in America, under different physi-
cal conditions, has had time to culminate, dissolve, and fade from sight.
Wher, in the early development of America, progress was sufficient to facili-
tate emigration, why may she not have furnished population to Asia? In
submitting this question, with evidence calculated to warrant further study,
and outlining various channels for investigation, we aim to attract for it that
scientific attention which, as an ethnological problem, it fairly deserves, hop-
ing some satisfactory answer may be attempted, before facilities for imterroga-
tion yet available among American aborigines, shall have passed ax ay forever.

This imperfect collection of facts is laid before the Academy in its present
condition, not in any way to ask for present endorsement, but to awaken
new sources of inquiry among thoughtful ethnologists, which may ultimately
lead to a discovery of the truth. A large mass of additional facts bearing
upon this subject require more labor than I have yet found time to bestow,
and would also unreasonably swell this already lengthy paper, which is
offered as a simple inquiry, suggested to careful and technical scientists,
who, by comparing physical, embryolegical, and linguistic characteristics,
pertinent histories, and traditions, may in future establish or disprove the
possibilities here shadowed forth.

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IDEAL SECTION ON FORTIET}1 PARALLEL, N, (AFTER PROF. HITCHCOCK.)

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CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 123

Reeuntar Meeting, May 17, 1875.

Vice-President Edwards in the Chair.
Fifty members present.

Gustave Mahé and Ernest L. Hueber were elected resident
members.

Joseph L. King and Pembroke Murray were proposed for
membership. J

Donations to Museum: Sponges and tertiary fossils from San
Diego, by Henry Hemphill; concrete gum, from C. B. Smith;
archil from Mazatlan, and Epiphites (Abies Douglassii), Henry
Edwards; fragments of wood from a well 180 feet deep in Alvarado,
Alameda County, California, from John Hall; Indian Mortar,
from Amos Bowman; fine specimen of peacock (mounted), from
James Lick; portion of skull of Ursus horribilis, from M.
O’Hara; snake from Master Willie Lockington.

Wm. Guerin read a paper on ‘‘ The Sewage System of San
Francisco.”’

Mr. Stearns read a paper by J. E. Clayton, of Salt Lake, as
follows: .

The Glacial Period—Its Origin and Development.
BY J. E. CLAYTON,

In the summer of 1860, I discovered the markings and terminal moraines
of the Glacial system of the Sierra Nevada mountains, on the head waters of
the Merced and Tuolumne rivers.

Upon my return to San Francisco, I reported the facts to the California
Academy of Sciences. Since that time I have been a careful student of the
glacial phenomena presented on the western slope of the continent. In other
portions of the world, the phenomena of the Glacial period have engaged the
attention of scientific investigators, ever since geology became a science.

Many theories have been suggested to account for the sudden change of the
climate of our planet, at the close of the tertiary age, from temperate and
tropical heat to that of arctic cold. The theories put forth by the ablest

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e. Polar current from N. E. to §. W., deflected sonth by mountain ranges.

Upper curved line shows volcanic belt where the waters were vaporized at the close of the Tertiary Age.

IDEAL SECTION OF NORTH AMERICA ON LINE OF FORTIETH PARALiLEL. (AFTER PROF. HITCHCOCK.)

(SEE PAGE 123.)

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124 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

writers on the subject have failed to account, satisfactorily to my mind, for
the most important facts observed. Many of these theories are based upon
an assumption of conditions and causes that cannot be maintained by logical
deductions from the general laws governing the progressive development of
the planet.

I will review briefly some of the theories put forth by eminent scientists, by
which they attempt to account for the great changes in the climate at the
close of the tertiary age.

THE FIRST THEORY

Is, that there occurred a great upheaval of land in the Northern Hemisphere,
by which the currents of the ocean and of the atmosphere were greatly
changed or modified, and that this great elevation above the ocean level was
the primary cause of the change of temperature. This line of reasoning
appears to me untenable, for the following reasons: Ist. If the elevation of
the land surface had of itself sufficient influence on the climate to produce
the Glacial epoch, it ought by the same law to have continued that condition
until the present time, and to an indefinite period into the future ages. As
this supposed cause has not been sufficiently potent to continue glacial condi-
tions, it therefore follows that it was not the primary cause of climatic
changes, but was merely a modifying influence, in so far as it changed toa
limited extént the direction of the air currents.

2d. The thermal effect of the sun’s rays upon land surfaces is much
greater than upon water surfaces. Hence the atmosphere becomes heated by
its contact with the land even at great altitudes. The land surface of the
North American continent will probably not exceed an average altitude above
sea level of more than two thousand feet. Compare this altitude with the
different heating power of the sun’s rays upon land and water, and the change
would in all probability be an increase of atmospheric temperatures.

3d. The effects of the elevation of the continents would be to largely
increase the land surfaces, and correspondingly decrease the areas covered by
water. The interior basins or inland seas would be drained off, the water-
sheds steepened, so that the surplus rainfall would be rapidly drained into
narrow, swift-running streams, thus reducing the sources of vapor to very
narrow limits as compared with the water surfaces in the beginning of the
tertiary age. It therefore follows that a largely decreased evaporating surface |
and a correspondingly increased thermal effect of the sun’s heat, could not
supply the conditions for a continental glacier system. Hence I conclude
that the elevation of land surface in the Northern Hemisphere was not an
adequate or primary cause of the Ice period.

SECOND THEORY.

Some investigators suppose that, by some means, the relative positions of
the poles of the earth have been changed, so as to bring the then frozen zone
jnto the range of the now temperate and tropical latitudes. Asa proof of
this, they cite the facts that the remains of vegetable and animal life, that are

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 125

now peculiar to the tropics, are found in abundance in the polar regions of
our time. By what means a self-balanced rotating globe could change the
position of its mass, without changing its line of rotation, is not shown by
the advocates of the theory; and unless the cause of such change can be
clearly shown by facts that cannot be accounted for in any other way, the
theory cannot be accepted as even probable. t

If the general proposition is true, that the earth was originally incandes-
cent, and has been slowly cooling through past ages by radiation, it follows
that the conditions for tropical life must have begun near the poles, and
progressed toward the tropical zone, in harmony with the changes of climate.
If no violent disturbances of level had taken place, the change would have
been slow and almost imperceptible; but we know that violent changes in the
earth’s crust have taken place, and have produced rapid if not sudden
changes in the temperatures and climates of its surface. These changes
have been sufficiently violent to destroy the characteristic types of life exist-
ing at the time, and mark a distinct period in the progress of the globe
toward its present condition. I therefore conclude that the theory of a
change of the poles of the earth is not susceptible of proof, and therefore
unworthy of serious consideration.

THIRD THEORY.

Another class of investigators, failing to apprehend the true causes which
produced the Ice period, have proposed the theory that the solar system, in
its sweeping circle throngh space, has encountered or passed through frigid
zones in the stellar spaces that reduced the surface or atmospheric tempera-
ture to an extent sufficient to give an Ice period to our climate.

This theory, like the one above considered, has not been proved by any
well considered facts, neither is it susceptible of proof by any known means
within reach of human investigators. If this theory were true, the waters of
the globe would have been frozen where they now are, and could not have
been transferred to any considerable extent, by evaporation and condensation,
upon the land surfaces.

The extinction of life would have been a slow, starving and ‘‘ freezing out’’
process, that could in no reasonable way account for the facts of glacial
times. The conclusion therefore follows, that cosmical influences had nothing
to do directly, in producing the Glacial epoch at the close of the tertiary age.
The facts, so far as I have been able to trace them out, all seem to indicate
that the geological disturbances and volcanic eruptions that occurred at the
close of the tertiary age, together with the return trade winds, were the only
causes, ample and sufficient to produce the facts and phenomena of glacial
times.

The question then may be asked here: What are the conditions necessary
to produce a glacial period? The answer is plain and simple: 1st. A folding
and dislocation of the earth’s crust along great longitudinal lines (N.-S.)
along the western borders of one or more continents. 2d. The issue of in-
terior heat, followed by great outflows of lava along such lines of fracture. 3d.
The local vaporization of the waters of the surface by contact with the lava

126 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

outflows and other points of escaping heat. 4th. The ascent of the vapors to
a height sufficient to penetrate the return trade winds, or upper currents of
the atmosphere. 5th. The general depression of the ocean beds, and cor-
responding elevation of the continents, and development of the great mount-
ain chains of the globe.

That such conditions and facts did occur at the close of the tertiary age,
substantially in the order named, is well known to every practical student of
Geology. That such conditions and facts, in conjunction with the upper
currents of the atmosphere, were ample of themselves to produce and would
of necessity cause the glacial epoch, cannot, in my opinion, be seriously
questioned.

To bring this subject clearly before the mind, it will be necessary to make
a brief survey of the physical geography of the continents.during the tertiary
age. The geological records, so far as science has been able to trace them
out and interpret their true meaning, show that, in the beginning of the
tertiary age, the continents over their largest areas presented low, undulating
surfaces, but slightly raised above the ocean level; that large districts were
covered by fresh-water lakes and inland seas, some of them at one period
presenting the forms of life peculiar to marine and brackish waters, and at
other periods only such living forms as are kuown to exist in fresh water—
thus proving that slight oscillations of the earth’s surface were sufficient to
cause the oceans to invade some of the interior basins of the continents and
fill them with salt water. Hence, in many of the tertiary formations, we
have presented the various forms of life peculiar to marine, brackish, and
fresh waters. During the progress of the tertiary times, great changes of level‘
were produced over large continental areas, until they became mostly dry
land. In the later tertiary period, the marine deposits were gradually con-
fined to the low borders of the continents, and the interior basins became
filled exclusively with fresh water, and only fresh-water deposits were formed
in their beds.

The climate of tertiary times fluctuated from a tropical warmth, that was
well nigh universal over the globe at the beginnin., to temperate and even
Arctic cold in the higher latitudes, where great elevations of mountain chains
occurred in the later periods. At the close of the tertiary age, the disturb-
ances of the solid crust of the earth were enormous. Great mountain chains
were elevated on all the continents, accompanied with corresponding de-
pressions of the ocean beds, thus confining the oceans to narrower limits
and increasing the land surfaces above the waters.

This last grand change of land and ocean levels must have occurred mainly
by sudden convulsions and re-adjustments of the earth’s crust. The con-
tinued radiation of heat from the fluid nucleus of the globe caused its con-
tinued shrinkage. The consolidated crust conformed to this shrinkage by
corrugations and oscillations of level. The sinking down of the ocean beds
and elevation of the continents went on slowly through the long periods of
the tertiary age, until the lateral pressure of the earth’s crust became so great
that it culminated in a series of dislocations an uplifts over all the conti-
nents of the globe. The ocean beds were doubtless equally disturbed and
broken, so as to relieve the. lateral pressure caused by the shrinkage of the
interior.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 127

The immediate effect of this relief of lateral pressure would be the settling
down of the broken, folded, and dislocated crust with nearly its full weight
upon the molten mass of the interior. This would cause the outflows of
lavas throngh the broken lines, until the fluid and solid portions of the globe
were balanced according to their relative densities and weights, just as water
will ascend in the fissures of broken ice to the points of equal weight. It
would appear from this line of reasoning, that the greatest outflows of lava -
ought to have occurred where the greatest downward folding took place; and
this is strongly indicated, if not proved, by the islands of the oceans being
nearly all of voleanic origin, and the lower flanks and plateaus of the conti-
nents having the greatest lava outflows.

While we must admit that the changes of level over large areas of the globe
were very slow, and extended through long geological periods, we are still
forced to the conclusion that sudden changes of vast extent have taken place
at the close of the principal eras. These convulsive movements not only
changed the relative positions of the land and ocean levels, but also swept
away all living forms peculiar to the geological age that was terminated by
such changes. The general results following such violent terminations -of
geological ages would be—

Ist. The escape of enormous quantities of interior heat, accompanied by
great lava outflows along all the principal lines of disturbance.

2d. The consequent vaporization of large quantities of water, continued
through the period of disturbance, and until the lavas were cooled and all
the principal vents of escaping heat were closed. In the earlier geological
periods, when the average temperature of the earth and atmosphere was
much higber than it is now, the waters vaporized during periods of volcanic
or igneous activity would descend in floods of rain; but in later times the
general temperature became so much reduced by the radiation of heat, and
the crust of the earth had become thickened to such an extent, that the
atmospheric temperature was dependeht mainly upon the influence of the sun.

Under these conditions, the vaporization of the waters by the outflows of
lava and hot gases, at the close of the tertiary age, would give results greatly
modified by atmospheric temperature. Near the points of igneous outbreak,
the lower zones of vapor would descend in floods of rain; but those portions
of the continents lying east of and remote from the lines of volcanic activity
would be buried in enormous depths of snow. Prof. Tyndall says, ‘‘To
produce a glacier, we must first vaporize the waters.’’ I think I have indi-
cated how the waters were vaporized. The next thing to demonstrate is the
freezing of the vapors, and their distribution over the continents, especially
over those portions remote from active igneous disturbances.

A careful study of the wind currents at this point becomes an essential part
of the problem to be solved. The currents of the lower portion of the atmos-
phere are modified in their movements to a great extent by the mountain
ranges and continents, but their general tendency is toward the west, as
they approach the equator. The upper currents are more uniform in their
movements, and they have a general tendency toward the northeast and
southeast, moving spirally from the equator toward the poles, in curves of
great length around each hemisphere before the polar regions are reached,

128 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

where they curve under and azain become the lower currents on their return
to the equatorial zone.

If the globe was a perfectly smooth sphere of homogeneous material like
water, the atmospheric currents could be mapped out with mathematical ac-
curacy; but the unequal surface of the land and the different thermal effects
of land and water surfaces produce great modifications of the wind currents
in certain latitudes.

This is especially the case along the west coast of the North American con-
tinent, where the polar cnrrent swings far out to the westward over the Pa-
cific, and the return trade wind, or upper current proper, swoops down be-
hind it to the east and strikes the west coast, and sweeps northeastward over
the continent.

This fact is beautifully and conclusively proved by the trees on all the
higher mountains from the Pacific coast to the summits of the Rocky Mount-
ains. The scrubby trees in all exposed positions near the higher summits
lean east and northeast; even the small twigs are bent around the limbs and
trunk in the same direction, so that the whole aspect of the tree presents the
appearance of reaching ont to the northeast with every limb and twig. These
facts show that the wind does blow in that direction (N. E.) almost con-
stantly. The general fact is well known, and I will not go into tedious details
to prove what must be readily admitted by hundreds of careful observers.

At the close of the tertiary age, the western slope of the continent was the
principal scene of active volcanic disturbance. To comprehend the fearful
extent of this disturbance, and the enormous masses of lava outflows, one
must travel over the disturbed regions and see them. My powers of descrip-
tion are too limited to undertake the herculean task. The whole western
slope of the continent has been broken, crushed and distorted in every con-
ceivable manner. Districts as large as some of the smaller States have been
buried to unknown depths with lava and ashes. Large rivers and great lakes
were swept out of existence by the overwhelming catastrophe. The lakes,
rivers and oceans sent columns of hissing vapors miles in height into the
upper air currents, where they were frozen as they were conveyed eastward,
and spread broadcast over the more quiet eastern slope of the continent.
Thus the waters of the Pacific coast were vaporized and spread over the con-
tinent by the return trade winds. All living things were overwhelmed and
buried in the sudden storms of snow. The mastodon and kindred tribes
were buried up suddenly, with their stomachs full of food, their bodies
loaded with fat, and not a trace of any slow process of change in climate
from cosmical or other exterior causes.

It was evidently no slow, starving-out process that destroyed the animals
of tertiary times, but the sudden and overwhelming effects of a great geo-
logical catastrophe.

While the elephant, rhinoceros, and other large animals were being buried
in the ashes and debris near the voleanic outbreaks on the Pacific slope, the
same class of animals were being covered hundreds of feet deep in snow on
the eastern slope of the continent.

Those animals that were not buried, like Pompeii, in ashes and mud near
the outbreaks, were overwhelmed and destroyed by the resistless floods of

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 129

rain, and the crashing shocks of the earthquakes The snow and ice period
of the northeast was contemporaneous with the flood period of the Pacific
coast. £

No continental glacial system covered the Pacific portion of the United
States, notwithstanding the altitudes were much greater; the glaciers were
local, and more or less isolated, clustering around the higher peaks of the
mountains.

The valleys and basins of this western volcanic region were filled with hot
water, hissing steam, and volcanic products. No ice beds could form in the
valleys of the Pacific; the hot rocks and escaping gases were busy, vaporizing
the waters for the glacial supply of the east. No gentle snow-flakes could
find a resting-place upon the table lands and valieys of the volcanic belt; but
floods of rain descended, and plowed deep gorges down the steepened flanks
of the recently elevated mountain ranges, thus establishing a new river
system for the Pacific coast.

The most prominent examples of this are seen on the western slopes of the
Sierra Nevada range, in the State of California, where the old river system
has been completely buried, first by ashes and debris, brought down by the
floods of water from the vents along the higher portions of the range, and
secondly by broad streams of lava extending from such vents, to the plains of
the valley. Notable instances occur in Tuolumne, Sierra, and Plumas coun-
ties. The portions of the old river system that were covered by the lava
outflows were protected by them from subsequent denudation, and are now
the summit lines of long ridges that divide the waters of the newly formed
river cafions.

Under these immense fields of volcanic ashes and lava beds are found the
relics of the tertiary life; and nota trace of such life has been found any-
where existing on the Pacific coast since this period of uplift and volcanic
activity which closed the tertiary age.

The next notable changes were the development of the new river system,
by the changes of the water-sheds and the enormous floods of water that fell
for many years near the lines of escaping heat, and the formation of glaciers
on the higher portions of the mountain ranges. In some places the glacial
action has been traced down the slopes of the granite peak to the lava beds,
and for considerable distances on their upper surfaces, thus showing that as
the lavas became cooled, the ice pushed its way over their higher portions.

Here we find events well marked in the order of their occurrence:

1st. An undulating, fertile country, of subtropical or temperate climate,
teeming with the living forms of tertiary times.

2d. <A violent and sudden outbreak of volcanic activity, accompanied by
great changes ot level.

3d. The destruction of nearly all life, followed by floods of rain to an
extent nowhere possible except near the sources of vaporization.

4th. The formation of glaciers on the higher mountains toward the close
of the flood period, and as soon as the local temperature was sufficiently
reduced to permit their formation.

These characteristic changes were not confined to the California coast.
The line of volcanic activity extended from Cape Horn to Behring Strait. In

130 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

fact, the whole western slope of the American continent, from the Pacific
shores to the summits of the Andes, Cordilleras, and Rocky Mountains, was
in active eruption and voleanic disturbance.

If no other parts of the world had been subjected to like disturbances, the
vaporization of the waters along this one great zone would have been suffi-
cient to modify its climate; but other portions of the globe were disturbed
to nearly an equal extent. And there can be no doubt about the effects of
such enormous evaporation of the waters on the climate of every part of the
earth; even tropical countries would be covered with snow if the vapors were
sufficiently abundant and dense to exclude the heat of the sun‘for a series of
years. The influence of the trade winds or great general currents of the
atmosphere, must not be lost sight of; they were the conveyers and distrib-
utors of the vapors produced by the escape of interior heat at the various
points of disturbance.

By tracing their general courses from such lines of disturbance, it is easy
to determine where the greatest deposits of snow would accumulate and
form the continental glaciers.

I have said that nearly all traces of tertiary animal life, were swept from the
American continent. But such does not seem to be the case with Africa,
India, and a part of Asia; there the elephant, rhinoceros, and many other
types of life closely allied to the tertiary mammals, remain.

This important difference in the present types of life of the two hemi-
spheres can be accounted for upon the general basis of the theories advanced
in this paper. The course of the return trade winds, or upper currents of
the air, is toward the east, but constantly diverging north and south from the
equatorial line. The American continent is narrow in the equatorial zone,
except a portion of South America.

The great volcanic activity along the Pacitic slope overwhelmed the low
lands with floods of water of such enormous volume, that nearly all land
animals were swept off or buried in the debris from the mountains. There
is no doubt but all the highlands of the tropical portion of South America
were buried deep in snow, if not with glaciers. Now take the line of the
upper air-currents across the Atlantic to the coast of Africa, and you will see
that the divergence of these currents north and south will divide the vapors,
and leave Africa comparatively free from their effects. The west coast of
that continent was but slightly disturbed by volcanic activity, and there was
not enough local vaporization along its west coast to give it a glacial system
or flood period of sufficient volume to destroy its land animals completely.

The same may be said of portions of Asia and India. Hence the preserva-
tion of leading tertiary types in the Eastern Hemisphere, and their almost
complete destruction in America, must be attributed to the operation of the
atmospheric currents in conveying the vapors away from some portions of the
land, while they covered other portions to great depths in snow and ice.

Some geologists assert that many of the tertiary mammals existed in North
America after the close of the glacial epoch. This opinion should be received
with great caution, for the reason that such remains were preserved in the ice
and snow of the glacier period; and as the glacial fields slowly moved down
mountain slopes and melted away in later times, the skeletons would be

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 13}

deposited in lakes and alluvial deposits along rivers, and become so inter-
mingled with the remains of more recent times, as to give them the appear-
ance of being contemporaneous.

By referring to the researches of Agassiz, Forbes, Tyndall, and other emi-
nent investigators of glacial phenomena, it will be seen that they admit the
influence of the air-currents in glacier-building.

The great return trade-wind current, that sweeps in a curved line across
Northern Africa and the Mediterranean Sea, deposits its accumulated vapors
in snow upon the Alps, where the glaciers of the present time have given
scientists an opportunity to study their formation and movements, and to
trace out, to a limited extent, the causes that produce them.

I must beg the indulgence of the Academy and scientific investigators gen-
erally, for the incomplete and somewhat crude style in which this interesting
subject has been presented by me; but I must express the hope that it is
sufficient to call the attention of abler minds to the broader field it opens up
for future investigations, and that it willadd a little to the sum of our present
knowledge of one of the most interesting periods in the geological history of
our planet.

Saur Laxe Crry, February 12th, 1875.

Mr. Stearns and Dr. Blake made some verbal remarks on the
subject of the above paper.

The Secretary read an extract from a letter by A. W. Kiddie,
County Surveyor of Plumas County, confirming the claim of Dr.
Harkness as the rightful discoverer of Lake Harkness.

Reevurar Meetine, June 7ru, 1875.
Vice-President Gibbons in the Chair.

Twenty-five members present.
S. B. Christie and Frank Soulé were elected resident members.

A. W. Crawford, Dr. G. King and Dr. F. W. Godon were
proposed as candidates for membership.

Donations to the Museum: From F. Gruber, specimens of
green-winged teal and blue-winged teal; from Samuel Purdy,
galena and silver ore from Utah, bismuth from same place, and

132 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

silver ore from Sonora, Mexico. President Davidson donated
seeds of wax tree, copper and pheasant skin from Nagasaki,
Japan. J. Begg donated specimens of cones of Pinus aristatus.
Mr. Graham presented a specimen of ‘‘ Loco” poison (Oxytropis
campestris) from Bakersfield, S. P.R. R. From Mr. Zeller-
bach, quicksilver ore from Lake County. J. P. Moore presented
specimens of ore from various localities. J. G. Riley presented
specimens of ore from Lake County. Specimen of Picea reli-
giosa, from volcano of Colima, Mexico, from J. Roegel. A. J.
Dennison presented piece of chestnut or ash wood found em-
bedded in piece of quartz from depth of 230 feet from surface,
in Lee mine, Elko County, Nevada, on C. P. R. R., Palisade,
472 miles from San Francisco.

Henry Edwards submitted the following:

Pacific Coast Lepidoptera.—No. 12. On some New
Species of Noctuidz.

BY HENRY EDWARDS.

The species of moths described in this paper belong to the group Anartide,
many interesting forms of which have been recently figured by Mr. Grote, in
the Bulletin of the Academy of Sciences of Buffalo. Their extreme rarity in
collections has always rendered them a favorite division of the family, and
more than one of the genera now noted would appear to be confined to the
Pacific States and Territories. The genus Annaphila, recently founded by
Mr. Grote upon a Californian species, Ann. diva., is remarkable for the light-
ness of the color of the lower wings, the system of coloration much resem-
bling that of the genus Catocala. The insects fly in the hottest sunshine, and
with the greatest rapidity, alighting only occasionally, when the harmony of
color existing between the upper wings and the lichen-covered rocks or
trees to which they attach themselves, renders them almost invisible. They
are, therefore, very difficult of capture, and can really only be taken while on
the wing, the process requiring a sharp eye andasteady hand. Nothing
whatever is known of their larval condition. A. diva, A. depicta, and A. am-
icula are the most common of the group, the remainder being only found in
my own collection or in that of my friend Dr. Behr, who has generously placed
his unique species at my disposal for description. I have in all cases adopted
his MS. specific names as applied to the specimens in his cabinet. The genus
Axenus is found on flowers in the early spring, the species Aw. arvalis, on
which Mr. Grote has founded the genus, being common in warm pastures
throughout the State, as early as the first weeks in March. It is to be ex-
pected that diligent search, particularly in the southern portion of the State,
will reveal many other species of these beautiful and interesting moths, and
the attention of entomologists is earnestly directed to them.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 130

Anarta Kelloggii, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Head, thorax and abdomen, black, with silver gray hairs.

Primaries, black, mottled with silver gray. The basal half line and thet. a.
are indistinct, the latter only very slightly dentate; orbicular and reniform,
very distinct, the former brownish, the latter surrounded by a white cloud.
T. p., bent anteriorly after reaching the middle, distinct near internal margin,
and edged outwardly with gray. Sub-terminal line whitish, tri-dentate, edged
anteriorly with black shade, most strongly marked on the costa; marginal line
black, cut with white streaks. Fringes blackish, mottled with gray.

Secondaries, black, with white median fascia, not reaching to anal margin.
Fringes, white.

Beneath, both wings are largely white. Primaries, with the base and a
broad sub-marginal fascia, dusky black. Secondaries, with base, small discal
spot, and rather wide sub-marginal band, also dusky black.

Expanse of wings, 1.35 inches.

(Coll. Hy. Edwards, No. 5534.)

Taken in Tuolumne County, California, by Dr. A. Kellogg, to whom I am
indebted for much valuable material, and to whom, with sincere regard, I
dedicate this species. It is allied to A. melanopa of Labrador, but differs con-
siderably by the more elaborate markings of the primaries, the much wider
black margins of the secondaries, and the darker and more pronounced col-
oring of the under side.

Anarta crocea, u. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Primaries, grayish brown, speckled with black. Basal half line much bent
inwardly at its conclusion. Between it and the t. a., the space is covered by
mingled brown and white scales. T. a., whichis gray, edged with black, runs
obliquely from costa to beyond the widdle, then forms a double tooth as it
reaches the internal margin; orbicular and reniform, white, well defined; me-
dian space darkest towards internal margin. T. p., white, with anterior edge
blackish, rounded from costa, and almost lunate inform. Behind it are many
white scales on a brownish ground, most strongly marked on the costa. Sub-
term. consisting of a blackish shade, approaching the t. p. by aseries of black
dots. Fringe, gray, mottled with black. Thorax and abdomen, light gray,
sprinkled with black.

Secondaries, yellow orange at base, with rather wide black margin.
Fringes white.

Beneath, the wings are yellow orange, the lower side the darkest, with
rather wide black margin, the costa of each sprinkled with brownish scales.

Expanse of wings, 0.85 inch.

Dalles, Oregon. (Coll. Hy. Edwards.)

It is possible that this species may form the type of a new genus, though
the similarity of its system of coloration to the European A. mytilli, induces
me to place it here.

Melicleptria venusta, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Head and thorax, rich chocolate brown; abdomen, black, with the anal
hairs golden brown.

134 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Primaries, with the base and outer margin rich chocolate brown. T. a.,
deeply notched anteriorly in the center. T.p., with a tooth extending ‘out-
wardly, the space between these lines being cream white, except on the costa,
where there is a light brown spot. Orbic., obsolete. MReniform, distinct,
ovate, dusky. Fringes, brown.

Secondaries, blackish brown, with large white patch occupying the whole
of the center of the wing, but not reaching to the anal margin. In this space
near the base are some black scales. Fringes, white.

Beneath, primaries largely white, with costa and base broadly blackish, and
a very large and distinct black discal spot. Margins, blackish, widely so at
apex. Secondaries, same as the upper side.

Expanse of wings, 1.05 inch.

(Coll. Hy. Edwards.) Kualamath Lake, Oregon. Lord Walsingham.

A most exquisite and remarkable species.

Melicleptria vaccinie, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Anarta vaccinie. Behr. MSS.

Head and thorax, brown, with a few brown scales; abdomen, blackish brown,
with the base of segments whitish.

Primaries, light brown, with a golden tinge; base of the wing darker than
the other portion. T.a., only moderately curved, very slightly dentate ante-
riorly as it reaches the internal margin. Median shade, whitish, brown as it
reaches the costa. Orbicular, almost obsolete. Reniform, large, distinct.
T. p., whitish, bent considerably outwards near costa, nearly straight towards
internal margin. Sub-term., sharply toothed in the middle; resting upon this
line are four or five black dashes. Fringes, shining golden brown, with
darker patches.

Secondaries, black, with median white fascia, broadest behind the middle,
but not reaching to the anal margin. Near the outer margin is a small white
streak, suggesting a sub-marginal band. Fringes, white.

Beneath, primaries black, reddish near costa, with broad median band, a
kidney-shaped spot near apex, and anteriorly notched marginal band, all
cream white. Secondaries, black, with a large space near the costa, reddish
white, and a nearly oblong spot in center of wing, cream white. Behind this
is also a small white spot. Fringes of both wings as in the upper side.

Expanse of wings, 0.75.

(Coll. Dr. H. Behr.) Sierra Nevada, Cal.

Melicleptria fasciata, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Primaries, fawn drab. Between t. a. and base, a slightly darker streak ex-
tends along the internal margin, and more slightly along the median nervule.
T. a., almost obsolete. Median space, whitish, forming with white fascia of
secondaries an almost continuous band. Orbicular and reniform, white, dis-
tinct. T. p., blackish, commencing very near the apex, then slightly bent
inward, and straight as it reaches the outer margin; behind it a dark exter-
nally toothed shade. Margin, whitish, with fringe a little darker.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 135

Secondaries, black, with rather narrow white median fascia, toothed in the
center, and not reaching the anal margin. Fringe, white.

Beneath, primaries largely whitish, with a streak from base almost to center
of wing, and a large irregular blotch on apical margin, black, leaving the
interior margin, a large portion of costa, and the apex, white. Along costa
of both wings are a few reddish scales.

Expanse of wings, 0.80.

(Coll. Hy. Edwards, No. 203.) Placer Co., Cal.

Very nearly allied to VM. vacciniw, of which it may possibly be the other
sex; but the differences of the under side are very striking, and while the
base of the primaries is almost black in vaccinic, in the present species it is
dark fawn drab. Thet.a.andt. p. lines are also much straighter than in
the preceding species, and the median shade, with white fascia of seconda-
ries, form a much more continuous line.

Melicleptria oregonica, nu. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Anthecia oregonica. Bebr. MSS.

Head, thorax, and abdomen blackish, with gray hairs.

Primaries, chestnut brown, with golden reflection. Asin MV. suetus, Grote,
the traces of the ordinary lines are lost. The base is dark, almost black,
with the orbicular white and well defined. Beyond the middle and inclosing
the reniform is a white band, bent inwardly, indistinct on costa, and not
reaching to the internal margin. Sub-term., nearly straight, whitish.

Secondaries, blackish brown, with rather broad white median fascia, which
is interrupted and almost divided near anal angle. Near exterior margin is
also a white oblong spot. Fringe, whitish.

Beneath, primaries, white, with two nearly square spots in center, a line
resting on the anterior one directed towards the base, and an almost regular
sub-marginal band, brownish black. Secondaries, also white, a large kidney-
shaped discal spot, and a marginal band reaching from base beyond anal
angle, blackish.

Expause of wings, 1.00 inch.

Coll. Dr. Behr. (Hy. Edwards, No. 4405.) Oregon. Colorado.

Heliothis Crotchii, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Fawn drab, with blackish brown markings. T.a., much toothed exteriorly
near internal margin. Median shade, pale. Orbicular and reniform, both
distinct, the latter surrounded by a brownish cloud. T. p., commencing very
near the apex, bending inwardly about the middle, thence almost straight to
internal margin. Beyond this is a brownish, dentate fascia, the dentations
formed by the sub-term. line. Marginal line composed of black dots. The
whole of the nervules are pale and distinct, giving a reticulated appearance
to the surface.

Secondaries, dusky, whitish towards the base, with clouded discal dusky
spot.

Beneath, yellowish drab; primaries, with large discal spot, and some dashes
near the base, blackish brown; margin, wide, dusky, with sub-terminal line

136 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

pale. Fringes, drab, mottled with brownish. Secondaries, yellowish drab,
with oblong discal spot, marginal and sub-marginal band, dusky. Thorax
and abdomen, yellowish, with darker scales, both paler beneath.

Expanse of wings, 1.00 inch.

(Coll. Hy. Edwards, No. 5533.) San Diego. G. R. Crotch.

Awenus ochraceus, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Very similar to A. arvalis, Grote, but differing by a large basal dark space,
and by the t. a. being bent angularly forward on the costa, not nearly straight
as in the more common species. The median shade is gray and well defined,
contrasting very strongly with the rest of the wing surface, which is ochreous
brown. The whole of the lines are more strongly marked than in arvalis.
The secondaries are blackish at the base, with a decided ochreous band, en-
closing a narrow black fascia. Fringes, yellowish. Beneath, ochreous, with
same markings as those of the upper side, but much fainter in tone. The
posterior wings have almost an orange tint. Size of arvalis, of which, should
it prove to be a variety, it is certainly a very extreme one.

San Diego. G. R. Crotch. (1. Coll. Hy. Edwards, No. 5535.)

Axenus amplus, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

A very distinct and peculiar species, in which the wings are much broader
and more rounded than in arvalis, and the lines and spots, with the exception
of the sub-term., utterly obliterated. The color is greenish olive, with a few
white scales sparsely scattered over the whole surface of primaries. Sub-term.
line, whitish, much curved inwardly as it reaches the internal margin. Sec-
ondaries, with faint discal dot, a few scales, and an imperfect sub-marginal
band, whitish. Fringes of both wings, white. Beneath, greenish drab, the
primaries darkest, discal spot paler, large, reaching almost to costa. The
secondaries have the base dusky, with three more or less perfect dusky fascia.
The margins of both wings are black, and the fringes greenish drab.

Expanse of wings, 0.80 inch.

Lake Klamath. Oregon. Lord Walsingham, by whom a <j and were
kindly added to my collection.

Annaphila arvalis, nu. sp. Hy. Edwards.
Erastria arvalis. Behr. MSS.

Primaries, dull, grayish black, with all the lines exceedingly indistinct.
The t. a. black, only slightly notched exteriorly, and edged posteriorly with
whitish. Median shade, blackish, with a few whitish scales beyond. Reni-
form, almost lost in the gray scales surroundingit. Fringes, blackish, flecked
with white.

Secondaries, pale yellow, with a dull black basal triangular patch, enclosing
some yellow spaces Margin, very narrow, even narrower than in A. depicta,
Grote, and almost regular interiorly.

Beneath, both wings are yellow. Primaries, with broad black margin,
widest at apex, and a narrow black transverse fascia, slightly bent outwardly

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 137

near anterior margin. Secondaries, with narrow marginal band as in the
upper side, and narrow waved median band, behind which is a black discal
spot.

Expanse of wings, 10.90. | 1.05.

The largest of the species of the genus known to me.

Sierra Nevada, Cal. (o¢'\P. Coll. Dr. Behr.)

This is in some respects intermediate between A. depicta, Grote, and A.
danistica, Grote, but differs from the former by its pale color, and by the ab-
sence of the discal spot of secondaries above, as well as by its larger size, and
from the latter by the very different ornamentation of the under side.

Annaphila lithosina, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Erastria lithosina. Behr. MSS.

Primaries, dark fawn-colo?, with the markings all rich velvety black. Basal
half-line more distinct than usual in this genus, and inclosing posteriorly a
few white scales. T.a., very deeply dentate outwardly in the middle. Median
shade, blackish, with a few bluish scales, especially around the orbicular,
which is dark fawn-color. T.p., also dentate exteriorly, becoming almost
straight as it reaches the margin. Outside the t. p. is a large, ovate, pure
white spot, nearly reaching the costa. Reniform, obsolete. Beyond this,
there is a bright fawn-colored shade, spreading from costa to internal margin,
and joining the sub-term. line, which is blackish, terminating on costa in a
white dash, and surrounded at apical angle by a few bluish scales.

Secondaries, bright orange; margin rather broad, deep black, widest towards
costa, and deeply toothed internally. Basal space, blackish, with imperfect
orange blotches, and a small black spot near anal angle.

Beneath, primaries, bright orange; transverse fascia, broad and nearly
straight, black patch at the margin inclosing some yellow spots. Secondaries,
margin as in the upper side, with a waved, broken fascia near the base.
There is also a minute black spot resting on the costa. )

Expanse of wings, 0.90 inch.

Sierra Nevada, Cal. (Coll. Dr. H. Behr.)

Dr. Behr informs me that this exquisite species is taken on the flowers of
Sambucus. I sawa single specimen during the past summer at the Big Trees,
Calaveras Co., which was hovering about the flowers of Dogwood (Cornus
Nuttallii).

Annaphila amicula, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Primaries, blackish, with gray lustre. T.a., bi-dentate near the interior
margin. Orbic., small, round, grayish. T.p., nearly straight, with only one
tooth near the middle. . Reniform, large, almost lost in the gray color which
clothes the outer portion of the wing. Sub-term., velvety black, not reaching
more than half way across the wing, divided on costa, and then inclosing
some white scales. Marginal line, divided into a series of dots. Fringes,
grayish,

Proc. Cau. AcaD, Scr., Vou, VI.—10.

138 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Secondaries, bright orange, base black, extending along the anal margin,
where the black line is slightly cut by an orange streak. Marginal band,
rather narrow, but wider than in A. depicta, and only slightly notched inte-
riorly. ‘he discal spot is large, and a narrow black fascia. bent outwardly
near the middle, extending across the wing.

Beneath, primaries, bright orange, shading into yellow on internal margin,
' a narrow transverse fascia, perfectly straight, and a large oblong discal spot,
black. The margin broadly blackish, with yellow scales, widest at apex, and
extending along costa, almost to the extremity of the transverse line. Sec-
ondaries, orange, with median transverse fascia, toothed near anal angle, and
an oblong discal spot behind it, black. Between this and the marginal band
are a few spots, suggesting the idea of asubmarginal fascia. Margin, black-
ish, flecked with orange scales.

Expanse of wings, 5 0.60. Q 0.75.

San Mateo Co., Cal. (Coll. Hy. Edwards, No. 2587.)

Amnaphila germana, n. sp. (?) Hy. Edwards.

Probably only a variety of the preceding. The primaries are exactly like
those of amicula, except that all the lines and marks are more distinct, and
the gray shade beyond the t. p. lighter in color and more strongly marked.
The secondaries are bright orange, but have no median fascia, and the. base is
wholly black, while the marginal band is much wider than in the last species,
and less deeply toothed interiorly. Beneath, there is little difference, except
that the spots and lines are rather less strongly marked.

Expanse of wings, 0.75 inch.

Napa Co., Cal. (1,9. Coll. Hy. Edwards, No. 4379.)

Annaphila domina, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Primaries, darker than in any other known species, being deep black, with
shadings of gray. All the lines, except the basal half, distinctly marked.
T. a. almost straight, or with only a very small dentation in the middle.
Orbic. and reniform, distinct, velvety black, the latter almost oblong. Across
the median shade is a small patch of white scales, and a larger one outward
of the t. p., which is arched on costa, dentate inwardly near the middle, and
then continued straight to internal margin. Sub-term. almost wanting, the
posterior margin of wings being dull slate-black, with no distinct markings.
Fringes, also slate-black,

Secondaries, rich dark orange, with moderately wide border, only slightly
notched internally, and extending all round the wing to the base, with an ob-
long discal spot, black. Fringe, black.

Beneath, the primaries are marked with the same system of coloration as
those of A. danistica, but the orange is very much darker and richer in shade.
The discal spots are three in number, each circled with orange. Beyond them
is a transverse arcuate line joining another, extending along internal margin
to base of wing. Margin, dusky black, apices broadly so. Secondaries,
orange, with some scattered black scales along costa, and a black marginal
band of moderate width extending to the base, speckled with white scales.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 139

Discal spots small, almost linear. Tarsi and under side of abdomen with
greenish and golden scales.

Expanse of wings, 0.75 inch.

San Mateo Co., Cal. (9. Coll. Hy. Edwards, No. 5720.)

Annaphila superba, n. sp. Hy. Edwards.

Head, thorax, and abdomen, brownish black, sprinkled with gray scales.

Primaries, also blackish, with gray scales. The whole of the lines rather
indistinct. Median shade, dark, with whitish scales. Orbic., obsolete. Re-
niform, blackish, surrounded by white ring. T. p., whitish, bent outwardly
near the middle. Beyond this are some white scales, forming an imperfect
fascia. Sub-term., black, not reaching internal angle, and between it and the
margin are a few more white scales.

Secondaries, bright crimson red, margin of medium width, black, quite
regular, and not toothed in any portion.

Beneath, both wings orange-red, shading into yellow, and surrounded by
rather broad black margin. Primaries, with discal spot, and faint suabmedian
fascia, black. Secondaries, with discal spot, and faint transverse line near
the base, also black. Fringes, above and below, grayish.

Expanse of wings, ¢' 0.55. 0 0.70 inch.

Marin and Napa Counties, Cal. (Coli. Hy. Edwards, No. 4381.)

A very beautiful species, not to be confounded with any other, the bright
crimson of the lower wings (as rich as in those of Catocala cara) and the
regular black margin serving to distinguish it.

LIST OF SPECIES DESCRIBED IN THIS PAPER.

Anarta Kelloggii, n. sp. ........- Hee e AO PEEL ake Sierra Nevada, Cal.
Set CROCEG,, DeiSP\putetsue | sae) stajeln sie staleinrelel le tayel == = lal el-relerels «sini Dalles, Oregon.
Melicleptria venusta, D. SP..... 2.06. sees ee ees eeeeees Klamath Lake, Oregon.
be MACCUUUCEs et SDiaiayaim atars eisiel che) elcid eye! clel aia’ slel\eisteve Sierra Nevada, Cal.

ae FASCTAUE RT ISD ec sith ss Stet w aap ae & ainsdne aie = Placer County, Cal.

“s OTEGONGCO® DASP ais'e'els\ct-lelols atatere elec) = <3") <' @ aleloe Oregon—Colorado.
HELELLOGINSHO TOLCHt, BLT SP VM ea 'acs)5ha -\olsvele eietolsiolel vistale 1s a eyelele's) evel ies + = [*) San Diego.
PAG CHUS OCH ULCEUSs Te SPs yelelateicic ayaict ach sian cisies «ie/etalsts ce) aieiar eels = San Diego.
BE SPEER PAGE EN BD cla tents s/siciacc'a Atsserele eiacab du ifcjata es aynyale)e Giela! ois Dalles, Oregon.
PATNA NULAIISS Te: SPsteare eles sretrsicialieheiaiiale tors etree a Sierra Nevada, Cal.
Ss PROSUNGHy Det SOR ereretenlte: sepeieiyte ol! ciclo oh lei ep tails Sierra Nevada, Cal.

: TU DOGIILIE BURST She Wo o.cricon Fano om uaUDeOe Or San Mateo County, Cal.

a Aran, Th. Ps (GR) lav eietinsinves Ov s)~'s vie Gina's aa Napa County, Cal.

oS GOTUNA,, TISPsis/sals\-)«))201- Bee Paleyetersscye sfauciei st San Mateo County, Cal.

<e SUPDEN OM: | Tie! SNe ocala el ctertie che eet iok= ets Napa and Marin Counties, Cal.

140 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Dr. Kellogg described a new plant, as follows:
Lilium Maritimum.

BY DR. A. KELLOGG.

Lilium maritimum. Kellogg.

Leaves alternate or rarely verticillate, chiefly clustered near the base, nar-
rowly oblong-oblanceolate, subobtuse, narrowing into a short petiole, 3-nerved
(intermediate or secondary nerves obscure), margins scarcely a little seabru-
lose, quite glabrous throughout, upper cauline successively diminishing to
minute linear-lanceolate sessile leaves, barely 144 of an inch. Peduncles
elongated, terminal. Flowers few (1-3), somewhat nodding, short, or equi-
laterally obconic-campanulate; segments lanceolate, slightly revolute above
the middle; genitals included, about equal; style short, straight.

Deep reddish orange-brown, inside dark purple spotted.

A small maritime lily found in the black, peaty, low meadows exposed to
the bleak, foggy climate of the coast of California, in the vicinity of San
Francisco. A lily not liable to be mistaken for LZ. parvum, K., or any de-
pauperate form of L. pardalinum, K., as both of these have rhizomatic scaly
bulbs, creeping, as it were, or spreading laterally into zigzag mats or masses,
if the soil be rich or moisture favorable. Like the Oregon lily, this has
isolated bulbs—both too hastily considered as varieties of DL. canadense, like
many others. This elastic species, for a lily hobby, is almost equal to any
emergency; in the realm of speculative philosophy, this may have been truly
the progenitor. From L. canadense, its nearest kin, it differs essentially in
the genitals being included; a point not only of specific but generic import-
ance. Flowers small, scarcely more than an inch in expansion, and of simi-
lar depth—giving it a truly equilateral obconic cavity, much more shortened
and shallow-shaped. Style even shorter than the stamens. The perianth
never pendent when in flower, but half erect, and looking outwards. Stem
in general the smallest known—12 to 18 inches high, ete. I do not insist
upon the absolute or relative form of the leaf being always narrower, although
for the most part this is so; and very seldom do we see more than a single
whorl, although cultivated remote from the coast, in light sandy soils; the
leaves then may become broader, somewhat oblanceolate, acute, and sessile,
but never pubescent along the veins. Salt margins of our sea-coast do cer-
tainly modify the forms of plants; yet, with all due allowance, the entire
physiognomy is not so changed as we witness here. —

In general; the bulb is pure white, strictly conic, scales closely pressed,
ito 1% inches in diameter; leaves 1 to 5 inches long, 44 to 4% inch wide,
rarely verticillate. Flowers May to August. Capsules long, narrow, not
winged. The late lamented H. G. Bloomer, Botanical Curator, has long ago
recorded his protest against this being considered a variety of L. canadense.

Dr. Gibbons made some verbal remarks on clouds.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 141

Dr. C. F. Winslow, a former member of the Academy, being
present communicated for record the following statement in order
that investigations might be made upon the subject when oppor-
tunity might occur hereafter.

In 1853, in passing a barber’s shop on Kearny Street, he saw
a fragment of a large bone, appearing to be a portion of a tibia
of some gigantic quadruped or reptile. He purchased it and
still has it in possession, stored at Boston with his collections.
He sent it to Professor Leidy several years after obtaining it,
and the Professor pronounced it to belong to a gigantic sloth of
an extinct and undetermined form. He sent it also to Professor
Baird of the Smithsonian Institute, that a cast of it in plaster
might be taken for preservation in case of loss of the original.
This fragment was in an excellent state of preservation. The
history of its discovery and location is this:

When workmen were engaged in digging a well, about the year
1852, where Dr. frederick Zeile’s Baths are now located, (that is,
in the rear of 524-528 Pacific Street, San Francisco,) at the depth
of about 23 feet they struck a hard whitish object, which on
being thrown out was discovered to be the leg bone of some large
animal. It was broken into several pieces, and the barber se-
cured this fragment which he preserved, and for which he wanted
a big price. The Doctor succeeded in getting it for three dol-
lars. He then found one of the men who had been employed to
dig the well, and was informed by him that the excavation went
through one of the limbs of the skeleton, and that the whole of
the rest of it was still embedded in the yellow silt through which
they dug till they came to water. The workman judged the
depth at which the skeleton laid to be about 23 feet below the
surface.

When Dr. Zeile’s brick building was put up, Doctor Winslow
observed that the rear wall just embraced the well within its
area; and he has always considered it possible to reach the skel-
eton without injury to the edifice, by careful excavation.

This gigantic fossil is probably entirely new to Science, and
would be of great value to the collections of the Academy.

The Doctor hoped efforts might be made to explore this spot
and obtain the bones. If the rest of the skeleton was as well
preserved as the fragment he has, it could be easily and safely
put together, and would be a priceless acquisition to the mu-
seum,

142 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Reautar Meeting, June 22, 1875.

Vice-President Gibbons in the Chair.

Twenty-four members present.

Donations to the Museum: Hon. F. Berton, Swiss Consul,
presented a bronze medal cast in honor of Agassiz.

Dr. Wm. Gibbons, of Alameda, read a description of a new
species of trout from Mendocino County, as follows:

Description of a New Species of Trout from Mendocino
County.

[Typical specimen in the Collection of California Academy of Natural Sciences.]

BY W. P. GIBBONS, ALAMEDA.
Salmo mendocinensis. Gibbons.

Body stout; outline from the nape of the neck to the snout, somewhat
incurved; dorsal outline, but slightly arched; tail, truncated; head, medium
size; from the anterior margin of the dorsal to the snout, nine-tenths of an
inch less than from the same point to the insertion of the tail. Tecth numer-
ous, moderately stout, incurved, fifteen to twenty on each maxillary; nine
stout incurved teeth on each pre-maxillary; two double teeth on the knob of
the vomer, four on the shaft; palatal teeth recurved, thirteen on each side;
five teeth on each edge of the tongue; about thirteen on each side of the
lower maxillary. The end of the lower jaw projecting about half an inch
beyond the obtusely rounded snout, which receives in a notch its knobbed
extremity. Center of the eye on a line drawn from the extremity of the
snout to the end of the lateral line.

BEd) D1 Pes. Via LO Anta. One

Vertical line from the posterior extremity of the upper maxillary, four-
tenths of an inch behind the posterior edge of the iris.

Adipose and anal opposite; ventral terminates under the middle of the
dorsal. No spots on A., V., or P. Dorsal and adipose with oval dark spots.

From tip of snout to nape of neck, 4 inches.

Number of times contained in total length, 6.75.

From tip of snout to farthest point on free margin of operculum, 6 inches.

Number of times contained in total length, 4.5.

Total length, 27 inches.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 143

From tip of snout—To anterior edge of iris, 2 inches.
by $f To posterior edge of iris, 2.75 inches.
ES a To extremity of superior maxillary, 2.63 inches.
= y To anterior base of dorsal, 10.75 inches.
yy “ To posterior base of dorsal, 14 incbes.
eS “i To anterior base of adipose, 19.75 inches.
as or To base of tail along lateral line, 24.50 inches.
We To base of tail, superior, 22.25 inches.
A is To base of tail, inferior, 22.75 inches.
ss ef To anterior base of anal, 17.50 inches.
iy FS To anterior base of ventral, 12.50 inches.

Greatest depth of body, 6.5 inches.

Color above lateral line when first taken from the water, cupreous iridescent,
gradually blending to silver-white along the belly; the colors soon fade to
gray.

The typical specimen from which this description is taken is a male of
7.5 Ibs. weight. The average weight of the fish is about 12 Ibs. The largest
that has ever been caught weighed 28.5 tbs.; the smallest that come to spawn,
4 ibs. The color of the male is darker than that of the female. The male
has very few spots, while the female is covered with them, except the belly:
the spots along the sides are larger than the others. When first caught, the
females are of a bright silver color; hence, some call them ‘‘ silver salmon.”’
The flesh of some is nearly white; of others, yellow or salmon-color. The
males are deeper from back to belly, and thinner, than the females.

The spawning season commences usually the latter part of March, and lasts
about a month. The hookbill goes from the first to the last of January; the
Sacramento salmon, from the middle of January to the middle of February.
Both invariably depart before this fish commences to spawn. They come up
in pairs, and select different kinds of locations from the hookbill and the
Sacramento salmon. They will take a fine ripple caused by a large rock or
by tightly packed gravel, about which there is always some dead water. After
brushing away the sediment, if any has accumulated, they lay their eggs,
well distributed, seldom more than two or three clusters touching. They
never cover their eggs with sand, as some fish do; nor do they dig holes, as
the hookbill; nor select holes among large rocks, as the large salmon occa-
sionally does. The period of incubation is not known. When hatched, the
little fish must work down stream, as none are found in the rivers save those
which are between half a pound and three pounds in weight. Like salmon,
they must go to the sea and mature; though this voyage is not absolutely
necessary, as some remain during the entire year, when the streams, drying
up, prevent them from passing down; but, generally, they seem to depart
before the water falls solow. Those caught in the fall, which have remained
during the summer, are generally in as good condition as those which appear
in the spring. They eat small fish and frogs, when in the spawning-beds. It

"seems to make no difference how large the fish may be, as to their stopping
in fresh water. They are very sagacious about the time and place of deposit-
ing their spawn, when there are no large fish to prey upon them; nor do they
lay them in such localities as the water may subside and leave them exposed.

144 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Still they have numerous enemies, among which is a small trout which re-
turns to the main streams in April, having either gone to smaller and clearer
streams in winter, or hidden themselves; for I have never been able to find
them in the main creeks during the winter. There is also a species of diver,
mostly white, and larger than a wood-duck, which lives almost exclusively on
the eggs during the season. This fish comes up all the streams that empty
into the coast near this place.

IT am indebted to Mr. Joseph H. Clarke, a corresponding member of the
Academy, for the foregoing intelligent description of the character and habits
of this trout. It has been a subject of careful observation with him for the
past two or three years. The Academy is under furthur obligations to him
for sending several specimens, which have formed the basis of the description
of this species. It would afford me pleasure to recognize Mr. Clarke’s con-
tribution to science by giving his name to this fish; but there is already a
S. Olarkii, described by Richardson.

Dr. Kellogg described a new species of Lily, as follows:

Lilium Lucidum.
BY DR. A. KELLOGG.

Lilium lucidum—Kellogg.—Leaves whorled, scattered below and above,
lanceolate, or ovate lanceolate, very short petioled, or subsessile, pseudo-
triplinerved or somewhat 3-nerved, smooth throughout, short peduncled.
Flowers few (or 1—6), nodding, sepals sessile, lance-acute, strongly turbi-
nate-revolute, thickened at the base, genitals exserted, about equal; style
straight, thick, light translucent yellow-orange, the dark purple spots on the
inside visible from without. June to August.

Bulb spheriod, or slightly depressed oblate-spheroid; scales thickened
lanceolate, acute, strongly incurved and very closely appressed; whitish, with
yellowish-greenish tinge, 174,—2 inches in diameter; isolated; perennial;
stem more central, 2 to 3 feet high, quite glabrous throughout; shortish thick
peduncles from axils of bractoid leaves; lower and larger leaves 1—1% inches
wide, about 3—4 inches long, diminishing above; flowers 144 inches expan-
sion, 1 inch deep; style, %4—%4 inch long.

A lily from Oregon and Washington Territory, long known, but also consid-
ered by authorities as another variety of L. Canadense. Without recapitulating
the isolated and peculiar perennial bulb, position of stem, form and color of
flower, surface, equal genitals, etc., we take these to be constant characters.
Indeed, the very revolute sessile sepals remind us more of L. Superbum than
Canadense, while the smaller, closer flowers and thickened base are peculiar.
These points were distinctly discussed and shown to the Academy about
fifteen years ago, when this same painting, accompanied by specimens, was
on exhibition; and our opinion then given as to its being a distinct species.
Having no bulb in hand at the time to verify statements or complete the
manuscript, it was held in abeyance, we believe, although the description was
then written.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 145

Judge Hastings read three papers on the following subjects:
‘On the Genuineness of Archeological specimens, including
Ancient Coins;” ‘‘ A Plan for the Construction of Levees for re-
claiming land;” ‘‘ San Francisco as a point for an Astronomical
Observatory.”

Amos Bowman read a paper on ‘‘ The Geological Formation
of California.”

Reautark Meetine, Jury 61x, 1875.

President and Vice-Presidents being absent, R. HE. C. Stearns
was called to the Chair.

Owing to a misapprehension on account of the night of meet-
ing, only six members were present, and the meeting adjourned
without transacting any business.

Recutar Meetine, Jury 197rx, 1875.
Vice-President Gibbons in the Chair.
Twenty-three members present.

Donations to the Museum: Duplicate fossils, ‘‘ Types of Dana’s
exploring expedition to Australia and Japan.” From Henry
Edwards, specimens of chetiles crenita, spirifer glaber and Platy-
chisma occulis from Australia; also specimens from the miocene,
Oregon, cleobis grandis, (N.S. Wales,) Pleurotomaria Morrisiana,
(N. Z.), lignite from Astoria, Oregon; Crustacean from the Bay
of San Francisco. From W. Sublette, Chimera Calliniensis.
From W. A. Woodward, galena ore from Searsville, San Mateo
County. Quicksilver ore with garnets, Sonoma County, from

146 ‘PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

R. R. Craig. Samples of Annatide found floating in the Pacific
by the donor, Dr. O. M. Wozencraft. Five birds from F. Gruber.
Fontinalis antipyritica from Treland, from Dr. R. K. Nuttall.
Specimens of ore from R. R. Craig; also ores from O. P. Cal-
laway.

The following paper by Henry Edwards was read by the Sec-
retary:

Pacific Coast Lepidoptera.—No. 13. On the Earlier
Stages of Vanessa Californica.

‘ BY HENRY EDWARDS.

In « very interesting and valuable article by Dr. H. Behr, on the ‘* Vanes-
side of California,’’ published in the third volume of this Society’s Pro-
ceedings, reference is made to the large swarms of Vanessa Californica ob-
served some years ago in the neighborhood of San Francisco, and the simul-
taneous occurrence in various parts of the State of this insect, which, in ordi-
nary years, cannot be otherwise regarded than as one of our rarer species. By
a fortunate circumstance, I am enabled to add a few facts to the natural his-
tory of this butterfly, and at the same time to present a description of its ear-
lier stages, which have been hitherto unrecorded. In an excursion up the
cation at the head of Richardson’s Bay, at the base of Mount Tamalpais, on
the 9th of May last, I observed, soon after leaving the open fields and passing
into the more secluded portion of the gulch, myriads of caterpillars on every
side, swarming on the ground and on every blade of grass. A further and
closer search disclosed the fact that the bushes of Ceanothus thyrsiflorus, which
here attain a large size, sometimes reaching as great a height as twelve or
fifteen feet, were utterly stripped of their leaves, looking as if some pestilence
had passed over them, and destroyed every vestige of their flowers and foli-
age. It was not difficult to divine that this denudation was owing to the mul-
titudes of caterpillars which had made their home upon the plants, on which
they were to be found in nearly all the stages from about the third moult to
full grown larve. It is not too much to say that they could be counted in
millions, for, in following the creek, which rans through the canon, for up-
wards of a mile, I found the ceanothus growing abundantly, and the same cir-
cumstance of the immense numbers of the insect, and consequent destruction
of the foliage of the plant, everywhere displayed themselves. The eggs of
the parent insect appear to have been deposited in clusters, as I noticed upon
the extremities of many of the branches small webs in which the cast skins of
the young larve were very abundant, thus suggesting the idea that in their
earlier stages the caterpillars are gregarious, not separating from their com-
mon home until about the period of the third moult. I found several of these
skins sufficiently perfect to enable me to offer a fair comparison of the young
larve with their appearance in the more advanced stage in which they came
immediately under my observation. I sought carefully for any Jchnewmonide

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 14y

or other parasitic insects which might be present, imagining that so large an as-
semblage of larvee would prove for them a certain attraction, but I did not suc-
~ ceed in taking a single specimen, nor as yet have any appeared among the cater-
pillars which I brought home with me. Ihave, however, observed in my
breeding boxes four examples of a rather large dipterous parasite, probably of
the genus Tachina. As, however, I carried away with me nearly ninety cater-
pillars, all of which passed successfully into the chrysalis state, this is but a
very small proportion to be aftected with parasitic enemies. Is it possible
that this comparative immunity is owing to the sharp and formidable looking
spines with which the caterpillars are furnished? Certain it is that the Van-
essce generally are more exempt from the attacks of Ichneumons than most
other butterflies.

During the last summer, the young lupines in the Golden Gate Park were
attacked by myriads of caterpillars, which at one time threatened their destruc-
tion, but the preservation of the small birds in and about the park kept down
the swarm, and a succession of very cold winds, during the middle period of
their growth, killed them off in thousands. I raised from the caterpillars, of
which I took away with me upwards of a hundred, no less than eighty-five
specimens of Pyrameis Cardui aud Pyrameis Huntera, and not a single one
among them was observed by me to be attacked by parasites. This, in con-
junction with the facts noted above, with reference to Vanessa Californica,
would seem to indicate that these insects enjoy a freedom from the assaults of
their tiny foes, which is not granted to other members of their tribe. It may
partially account for the vast swarms of the various species which periodically
make their appearance in different parts of the world. But this is one of those
singular occurrences connected with insect life, which are so difficult to ex-
plain satisfactorily. The canon in which Vanessa Californica was found has
been visited by J. Behrens and myself at least twice every season for the last
six years, and though I have invariably sought most diligently for caterpillars,
until now that of the present species has been utterly unknown to me.

It may with almost certainty be predicted that the coming fall will witness
the same large swarms of this butterfly as those observed by Dr. Behr in 1856
and 1866, which dates will serve to indicate that the insect appears in such
numbers about once in nine or ten years. The caterpillars collected by me fed
voraciously, and changed into the chrysalis state from the eleventh to the
twenty-fourth of the month, the transformation of all I had secured being
complete by the latter date. In this condition, they were extremely restless,
constantly keeping up a jerking motion, and knocking themselves against the
lid and sides of the boxes in which they were placed, with such force as to be
heard all over the house. On the 23d of May, my friend Samuel Williams, of
the Evening Bulletin, was enjoying a picnic in the cafon mentioned above,
when the attention of his party was drawn to a very singular noise in the
bushes over their heads, the cause of which it was for a time difficult to dis-
cover. At last it was found to proceed from myriads of chrysalides, attached
to the leafless stems of the ceanothus, which, by a constant motion of their
bodies, gave a trembling to the branches of the shrub, and produced the sin-
gular and half weird noise referred to. The perfect insects began to appear
on the 25th of May, and did not all emerge until the 6th of June, the average

148 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

time in the chrysalis state being about fourteen days. The young caterpillars
are wholly jet black, with the spines shorter than they are towards maturity,
and without any trace of the steel-blue, shining tubercles, which are so strong
a characteristic of their more advanced stages.

After the third moult the following is the appearance of the caterpillar:
Head, moderate, jet black, shiny, with two short branched spines on the
crown, and a series of smaller ones on the sides in front. In the center of
the head isa groove. Body, deep velvety black, each segment behind the
head with five branched spines, at the base of which are bright, steel-blue
tubercles. In the sunlight, these tubercles, from their highly polished sur-
face, glisten almost like jewels. Between the spines, and particularly about
the dorsal region, are a number of small white circular dots, from each of
which springs a short whitish bair; and a rich black velvety line, sharply
defined, extends from the base of the head to the anal segment. The latter
is furnished with only two branched spines. Prolegs, black; abdominal legs,
dirty yellow. Length, 1.00 inch.

Mature larva. There is no change except in size until the final moult, when
the middle spine of each segment becomes bright yellow at the base, and the
white spots at the base of the hairs larger and more numerous, giving the
appearance of a yellow dorsal line. Length, 1.65 inch.

Chrysalis. General color, ashy gray, with bluish efflorescence; abdomen,
fawn-color; head, with two rather sharp, well developed, blackish processes;
thorax, mottled with brownish, with two angular spines near the junction of
the wings; mesonotal process, rather large, brown, with sharply hooked spine
directed backwards. On the sides of the thorax are four black points, the
basal ones surrounded by a cream-white patch, which extends to the first
abdominal segment. Wing covers, ashy, brown along the margins; basal
abdominal segment, with two small, black spines, behind which are large
cream-white patches. The remaining abdominal segments have each two
black points surrounded with black patches, growing smaller and fainter
towards the anal extremity. Spiracles, black, almost linear, with a series of
black dots above and below. The anal segments are much arched, directed
inwardly toward the exterior of the wings. Length, 0.65 inch. There is no
trace of silver upon any part of the surface of the chrysalis.

As Vanessa Californica has been said by some authors to be identical with
the European polychloros, I subjoin, for comparison, a brief description of
the caterpillar and chrysalis of the latter species. It will at once be seen how
widely separate the two are, in their earlier stages. Vanessa polychloros, L.;
Caterpillar, bluish or brownish, with a lateral stripe of orange. The spines
are slightly banded and yellowish. The larve feed on the willow and elm,
and on some kinds of fruit trees, especially the cherry. Encyclop. Method.
Papillon. 305. Chrysalis, flesh-colored, with golden spots near the neck.—b.

Since writing the above, yesterday (June 6th), in company with Mr.
Behrens, I paid another visit to the canon in which we had previously found
the Vanessa. Contrary to my expectations, the insect was far from abun-
dant, and at least 75 per cent. of those we found were crippled in the anterior
wings, while dead specimens, which had never been able to take an extended
flight, were scattered everywhere about our path. The females also seemed

e
F

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 149

to take refuge at the roots of the dried-up grass, abandoning themselves to
death. Well developed specimens of both sexes flew rather rapidly, alighting
very frequently, and settling on stems of trees and among decayed leaves
closely resembling them in the color of the under side. They also invariably
placed themselves upon the branches with the head downwards. The insects
appeared to be confined to a very small area, as we did not meet with any
Specimens except in the immediate neighborhood of the spot in which the
caterpillars were taken. The crippled state of most of the imagos may be
owing to the extremely dry state of the weather during the past month, the
want of moisture acting upon the wings of the insect during their last stage,
and preventing their proper development.

S. C. Hastings read a paper on ‘‘ Phenomenal Changes of
Climate in Past Epochs.”

Dr. Gibbons read an obituary notice of Marshall C. Hastings.

Reeutar Meerina, Avaust 2, 1875.
Vice-President Edwards in the chair.

Thirty-five members present.

The following new members were elected: Dr. G. King, Dr.
F. W. Godon, A. W. Crawford, Pembroke Murray, Wm. Eim-
beck, Jas. L. King.

Donations to Museum: Fossil bone from Tanitos Creek, San
Mateo County, California, W. S. Downing. Fossil shells from
Pescadero, from Milo Hoadley. Fifteen species of Unionidw
from W. G. W. Harford. Textile plants from various localities,
from Geo. W. Dent. Specimens of ores, from Joseph Potts,
Coll Dean, R. H. Rogers, A. W. Von Schmidt and Geo. W.
Dent. Woods, from A. W. Crawford.

Dr. Blake read the following paper:

10 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

On Roscoelite, or Vanadium Mica.
BY JAMES BLAKE, M. D.

Ata meeting of the Academy in September of last year, I presented a
specimen of a new mineral, under the name of Colomite, which I then consid-
ered to be a mica, containing a large percentage of chromium. I had, at that
time, made no detailed analysis of the substance, and had merely arrived at
the conclusion that it was a chrome mica, from some superficial blow-pipe
tests, and from its reaction with acids; knowing, also, that chromium is not
an uncommon ingredient in micas. Subsequent to my last communication
on the subject, Dr. Ghent, of Philadelphia, to whom a specimen of the min- —
eral had been sent, discovered that it contained vanadium, and on his inform-
ing me that such was the case, I sent him all the specimens of the mineral 1
possessed, so as to enable him to make a complete analysis of it.

I shall not now enter into its chemical composition, merely remarking that,
as I before observed, it is evidently a potash mica, containing about twenty
per cent. of vanadium, instead of chromium, as I had before stated. I ex-
pect Dr. Ghent will shortly publish his analysis of the mineralin the American
Journal of Sciences.

The occurrence of a mineral containing so large a percentage of vanadium
is interesting, -as, up to the present time, vanadium has been found in but
very few substances; itis, in fact, one of the rarest of the elements, and
although it has lately been discovered in some voleanic rocks, yet it is present
in such small quantities—not more than one part in ten thousand—that even
its detection is difficult .*

The only chemist who has successfully investigated the properties of van-
adium, is Professor Roscoe, of Manchester, and I propose to name the min-
eral, Roscoelite, as the most appropriate name I can give it.

AsI stated ona former occasion, the mineral occurs, associated with
quartz, in a vein in porphyritic rock, at Granite Creek, in Eldorado Co., in
the lower hills of the Sierra. It has been extremely rich in gold, the mica
carrying most of the gold. The substance is interesting. under a mineral-
ogical point of view, as affording a unique instance of so large a proportion
of a pentavalent element entering into the composition of a mica, and offers,
perhaps, the most curious instance of the anomalies that present themselves
in the chemical composition of this class of minerals.

*T think it probable that vanadium may occur in larger quantities in these rocks than
is supposed, as I believe the methods employed for separating it are imperfect. I have
mixed vanadium with basalt, and after treating it in the manner indicated for separat-
ing the substance, I obtained but about 65 per cent. of the quantity added. I have
reason to believe that it forms compounds with the alumina, iron, and silica of the
rocks which have not been at all investigated. Since the above was written, I find that
Dr. Hall has found vanadium widely diffused in many rocks, generally associated with
phosphorous, although I have been unable to detect the presence of phosphorous in
the mica.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 151

Dr. Blake related the results of some physiological experi-
ments he had performed, to determine the molecular relations
of Beryllium. Neither the specific heat of the metal, or the
vapor density of its chloride, had been ascertained, and chem-
ists were undecided as to whether it was a trivalent or quadri-
valent element. Its physiological reactions, when introduced
directly into the blood, so closely resemble those of alumina,
that there can be no doubt but that it belongs to the same
isomorphous group, and that itis therefore quadrivalent. There
is also a close relation between the intensity of the physiologi-
cal action of the compounds of these two metals and their
atomic weights. In a series of experiments, conducted ex-
pressly to determine this point, the quantities of BesOs, under
the form of sulphate, required to kill 2,270 grammes of rabbit,
when injected into the veins in divided doses, were .059, .061,
.050 grm; ard of AlzOs, injected under the same conditions,
were .021, .023, .022 grm. The smallest quantity required
to arrest the vital reactions, when introduced in one dose, was
of BezO:, .088 grm; of AlzOs3, .016 grm; showing a marked
increase in the physiological action of these substances with the
increase of their atomic weights. This, I believe, is the first
time that physiological reactions have been used to throw light
on the chemical properties of a substance. Should, however,
the carbon compounds follow the same laws in their physio-
logical reactions as the inorganic elements, living matter must
offer a valuable reagent in their investigation. The recent ex-
periments of Messrs. McKendrie and Dewar, published in the
twenty-third volume of the Proceedings of the Royal Society,
certainly indicate that such may be the case, as in experimenting
with the compounds of the Chinaline and Pyridine groups, it
was found that the physiological action became stronger in going
from the lower to the higher members of the series. They also
observed that, in the Pyridine group, where the base became
doubled by condensation, not only was the physiological action
more intense, but its character was completely altered, agreeing
with the salts of iron, with which analogous changes take place,
both in the character and intensity of their physiological action,
when the molecule is doubled in the change from the ferrous to
the ferric salts. [See ‘Journal of Anatomy and Physiology,’
vol. 3, p. 24.|

152 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA
Dr. Behr described a new weed from Lower California.

A paper by W. N. Lockington was read as follows:

List of Echinidze now in the Collection of the California
Academy of Natural Sciences, May, 1875.

BY W. N. LOCKINGTON.

Suborder DESMOSTICHA.

This suborder includes the regular sea-urchins, that is, those in which the
poriferous zones are continuous from mouth to apex, both of which are
central, the apex with ocular, genital, and anal plates.

Family CIDARID®.

Interambulacral areas very,wide, with few coronal plates, each bearing a
single primary perforate tubercle, surrounded by a large scrobicular circle.
Actinal and abactinal systems large. Ambulacral areas very narrow, com-
posed of numerous small plates, the pores in single pairs, and the median
ambulacral spaces set with small flattened papillae. Jaws not so complicated
as in the Echinide and Diadematide. Teeth in shape of a gauge. Auricles
made up of independent arches, and taking their origin from the interambu-
lacral spaces. The spines are large and solid.

CIDARIS.

1. ©. Thouarsii. Valenciennes. Panama. Gulf of California.
Two large specimens from the latter locality, presented by D. E. Hunger-
ford. This species attains a diameter of about two inches. .

2. C. metularia, Blainville. Red Sea. Mauritius. East Indies. Sandwich
Islands. Feejee Islands.
The specimens in the museum are from A. Garrett, and were collected in
the Sandwich Islands. This is a very small species, the largest specimen not
exceeding three-quarters of an inch in diameter.

Family ARBACIAD A.

This small family contains Echini without secondary and miliary tubercles;
with the pores in single pairs; jaws somewhat resembling those of the Cida-
ride, and the auricles disconnected. The spines are solid, but thinner than
those of the Cidaridw, and the anal system consists only of four large plates.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 153

ARBACTA.

3. A. stellata, Gray. Gulf of California. Panama.

Family DIADEMATIDZ.

Test thin, ambulacra narrow. Spines long, hollow, verticillate or trans-
versely striated; tubercles of ambulacral and interambulacral areas similar.
Auricles not forming connected arcs. Pores in arcs composed of three pairs.

DIADEMA.

4. D. Mexicanum. Acapulco. Cape St. Lucas.

5. D. setosum, Gray. Cape Verde Islands. Japan. Sandwich Islands.

Feejee Islands.
A single specimen from the Bonin Islands, presented by W. J. Fisher.

ECHINOTHRIX.

6. £. calemaris, A. Agassiz. East India Islands. Society Islands. Phil-
ippines.

A single fine specimen, presented by W. J. Fisher, naturalist of the ‘‘ Tus-
carora,’’ and dredged from a depth of ten fathoms, off the Bonin Islands.
When first brought in, there was observable a singular swelling at the apex,
which led me to suspect there might be a parasitic crustacean within; a sup-
position which was afterwards verified by the extraction of a fine specimen
of a new species of the family Pinnotheride, measuring fully 14% in. across
the legs. The family Pinnotheride are all parasitic, inhabiting the mantle of
oysters, mussels, Haliotis, and other mollusks, and also, as in this instance,
the extremity of the digestive canal of certain Echini.

Family ECHINOMETRADZ.

This family contains many genera and species, all of them distinguished
from the Echinide proper by having the pores arranged in arcs of more than
three pairs. In many cases, the outline is a long oval, and the axis is oblique,
that is, it does not coincide with the center of either ambulacral or inter-
ambulacral areas.

HETEROCENTROTAS.

7. H.mammillatus, Brandt. Zanzibar. Red Sea. East India Islands.
Sandwich Islands. Feejee Islands. Gulf of California.

Alexander Agassiz, in his ‘‘ Revision of the Echini,’’ gives all these locali-
ties except the last; but we have in our collection unmistakable specimens of
this fine species, brought to Prof. George Davidson from Cape St. Lucas.

The spines of H. mammiilatus are very large, and vary in shape from that
of a cricket-bat to that of a bayonet; and the test is very strong and thick.

Proc. Can. AcAD. Scr., Vou. VI.—11.

154 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

8. H. trigonarius, Brandt. Mauritius. Java. Sandwich Islands. Feejee
Islands.

Unfortunately, our only example of this species is a single denuded test,
whereas of the foregoing we have three fine specimens; the arrangement of
the tubercles in the abactinal part of the ambulacral region is, however, suffi-
cient to establish its specific identity. The spines are usually triangular in
section.

ECHINOMETRA.

9. EF. Van Brunti, A. Ag. Peru. Panama. Gulf of California.

10. #. lucunter, Blainville. Zanzibar. Red Sea. East Indies. Japan.
Sandwich and Feejee Islands.
Of this species we have three specimens, two of them from Japan, pre-
sented by W. J. Fisher.

11. £. oblonga, Blainville. Philippines. Seychelle Islands. Sandwich
Islands.
STRONGYLOCENTROTUS.

12. 8S. purpuratus, A. Ag.

This species is abundant on this Coast between Puget Sound and San
Francisco, but data are wanting to determine its range north and south of
those points. It is eaten by the Italians. In color it is dark violet when alive,
but the dried tests have a greenish tint.

13. 8S. Franciscanus, A. Ag.

This species is one of the largest of the Echinide, attaining a diameter of
six inches across the test. It is found at various points upon the Pacific Coast,
from Queen Charlotie’s Island to San Diego, and A. Agassiz gives Formosa
also/as one of its localities.

14. S. Mewicanus, A. Ag.

Several specimens from the Gulf of California. The spines in this species
are nearly as long as the diameter of the test; a peculiarity by which it may
easily be distinguished from S. purpuratus.

15. S. Drobachiensis, A. Ag. North European Seas. North Pacific. N. E.
Coast of North America.

This species is common to the more northern parts of both continents, and
is found on both shores of this continent. It is, in fact, one of those animals
which appear to have been driven in all directions from the pole, by the
influence of increasing cold.

Our specimens, which are very fine and perfect, were presented by W. Jones,
Esq., Surgeon U. 8. N., and were dredged in 45 fathoms, about 6 miles off
the shore of Marmot Island, Alaska, from a bottom of rock and sand.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 156

16. S. Intermedius, A. Ag.

Two specimens in this collection appear to belong to this species, as they
have the greenish spines and the small tubercles upon the anal system men-
tioned in the description by A. Agassiz; the locality, however, is different, as
that author gives Japan, while these are from the Sandwich Islands.

Family ECHINIDA.

In this family the ares of pores in the poriferous zone are never composed
of more than three pairs. It is divided into two sub-families, the Temnopleu-
ride, characterized by peculiar pits at the angles of the coronal plates, and
the Triplechinide, which have short, straight ares of three pairs of pores.

Sub-family TRIPLECHINIDZ.
ECHINUS.
17. E. Esculentus, Linn. Norway. English Channel.

18. EH. Margaritaceus, Lamk. Patagonia. California.

The specimen in this collection was dredged in 40 fathoms, at San Pedro,
by W. J. Fisher.

19. HE. Norvegicus. Norway. Mediterranean. Straits of Florida. .
20. HE. Miliaris. Norway. English Channel.

Genus TOXOPNEUSTES.

21. T. Pileolus, Agassiz. Panama. Gulf of California. Viti Island. Mamnzi-
tius. East India Islands.
HIPPONG.

22. H. depressa, A. Ag. Gulf of California.

23. H. variegata, A. Ag. Sandwich Islands. Japan. East India Island.
Viti Island. Red Sea, Mozambique.

This species is smaller than H. depressa, from which it is easily distinguished
by the small size of the tubercles, by the absence of tubercles in the inter-
ambulacral and median ambulacral spaces between the ambitus and the
abactinal pole, and by the coloring (usually violet) of those spaces.

Sub-order CLYPEASTRIDZ.

This sub-order, intermediate between the regular Echiniand the Petalostiche,
contains Echinoids with very low, flat tests, petaloid ambulacra, and anal
opening detached from the apical system, so as to give, as in the Petalostiche
or Spatangoids, an anterior and posterior extremity. They differ from the
Spatangoids in the possession of jaws, which are, however, much simpler
than in the regular Echini, and articulate upon the auricles of the test,

156 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

instead of being held in place by a system of muscles. On the lower or
actinal surface ambulacral furrows, crowded with small pores, and arranged
irregularly, take the place of ambulacra. The ambulacra of the upper or
abactinal surface are broader than the interambulacra.

Family CLYPEASTRIDH.

Echini with supports connecting the upper and lower floors of the test,
either as pillars, walls, or radiating partitions.

ECHINOCYAMUS.

24. HE. pusillus, Gray. Norway. Mediterranean. Azores. Florida.

CLYPEASTER.

25. C.rotundas. Panama. Gulf of California. San Diego.
The fine specimen from the Gulf of California, in this collection, is of a
dark violet tint, which is its color when alive.

26. OC. scutiformis. Red Sea. Philippine Islands. Kingsmills. Japan.

It has been my good fortune to examine a large number of specimens from
Japan and the Pacific islands, obtained by various persons, among them
W. Garratt and W. J. Fisher. These specimens, which are 13% to above 4
inches in length, all evidently belong to one species, and that species a
Clypeaster, and not an Echinanthus, since there are no double floors or double
walls. As the small specimens agree exactly with the C. scutiformis of
Samk., it is evident that the larger ones are the adults of that species.

The three specimens in the collection measure respectively 13, 2;5;, and
314 inches in longitudinal diameter, and 1;4;, 14, and 3} inches in transverse
diameter; but I have seen specimens exceeding the largest of these.

Family LAGANIDA.

Floors of test connected by walls running parallel to the edge; interambu-
lacra extremely narrow.
LAGANUM.

27. L. depressum, Sess. Kingsmills. VitiIsland. Philippines. Australia.
Zanzibar.

Two small specimens, one of which measures 1} inch longitudinal diame-
ter by 1} inch transverse diameter, appear to be the young of this species.
They are from the Kingsmills. The partitions, forming a narrow belt of
three or four concentric walls near the edge of the test, agree with Laganum
proper, not with Peronella.

Family SCUTELLID.
Test extremely flat, frequently perforated with cuts or lunules. Ambula-

eral furrows of under side more or less branching; tubercles and spines of
upper and lower surfaces differing in size.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. L57

ECHINARACHNIUS.

28. E. eacentricus, Val.

This is the common cake-urchin of the Pacific coast, found at all points
from Sitka to Monterey, and also at Kamtschatka. It is extremely common
at the mouth of San Francisco Bay, where it lives in great numbers on the
bar, on a bottom of sand and a little mud, at a depth of from five to seven
fathoms. The district inhabited by it extends for a length of four or five
miles, and the width of a mile along the west and southwest part of the bar.

29. E. mirabilis, A. Ag.

This author gives Japan as the habitat of this species; but it is also found
in Alaska, as we have two fine specimens from the Shumagin Islands, pre-
sented by W. H. Dall.

30. E. parma, Gray.

A. Agassiz gives New Jersey, Labrador, Vancouver Island, Kamtschatka,
and Australia as habitats of this species. Our collection contains some
specimens from Hakodadi, Japan, presented by W. J. Fisher.

MELLITA,
31. WM. longifissa, Mich. Panama. Gulf of California.
ENOOPE.

32. . Californica, Verrill. Panama. Mazatlan. Gulf of California.

One of our specimens is curiously deformed anteriorly and posteriorly, so
that its transverse diameter greatly exceeds its longitudinal diameter. The
abactinal side is jet-black, with a velvety surface of small spines; but the
actinal side, where the spines are comparatively large, is of a mouse tint.

33. E. grandis. Gulf of California.

Of this massive species we have one fine specimen, presented by W. G. W.
Harford.

Sub-order PETALOSTICHA.

These Echini have no teeth; the anal system is separate from the apical;
the ambulacra are petaloid; the test is less flat than in the Clypeastroids;
certain parts of the test and spines are greatly specialized; and the radiate
form is accompanied with an evident bi-laterality.

Family CASSIDULIDZ.
Petalosticha without plastrons or fascioles, on which the spines are arranged

differently to the rest of the test. They approach the Clypeastroids in many
respects, but have no teeth, and in form simulate the regular Echini.

158 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

ECHINONEUS. )
34. EH. cyclostomus, Seska. Australia. Kingsmills. arian
35. EH. semilunaris, Gini, Florida. East India Islands.
RHYNCHOPYGUS.
36. R. Pacificus, A. Ag. Gallipagos. Panama. Gulf of California.
Family SPATANGIDA.

The actinal part of the test occupied by a plastron, with bare ambulacral
avenues defining its sides. Other plastrons formed by fascioles or bands of
crowded miliary spines. The combinations of the plastrons and fascioles,
with the shape of the test and petals, are the principal characters used in
distinguishing the subfamilies and genera.

MARETIA.

37. MM. planulata, Gray. Kingsmills. China. East Indies. Mauritius.
LONENIA.

Bey tb elongata, Gray. Red Sea. Australia. Philippines.

BREYNIA.

39. B. Australasie. China. Australia. Japan.

A very fine specimen, 3% inches long by 31% inches broad, probably pre-
sented by W. Garrett, from the Sandwich or Society or Kingsmill Islands, as
I found it in company with the crustacea collected by him in those localities.

ECHINOCARDIUM.
40. E.cordatum, Gray. Norway. Mediterranean. Britain. Brazil. Florida,
AGASSIZIA.
41. A. scrobiculata, Val. Panama. Gulf of California.

BRISSUS.

42, B. carinatus, Gray. Society, Sandwich, and Philippine Islands. East
India. Mauritius.

ADDITIONAL SPECIES.
[Acquired since date of List.]
ARBACIADA.

Arbacia Dufresnii, Agassiz. Patagonia. Chili. Navigator Islands,
Locality of specimens in museum not known,

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 159

ECHINOMETRADZ.

Colobocentrotus atratus, Brandt.

Specimens collected at the Paumotu Islands. Collected and presented by
Capt. M. Turner. ‘The species occurs also at Zanzibar, Java, and Sandwich
Islands.

‘*Stimpson says that CU. atratus is found at the Bouin Islands, adhering,
simply by their suckers, to the perpendicular faces of rocks, exposed to the
full fury of a Pacific Ocean swell. We must remember that the test of this
genus forms, with its spines, a flat segment of a sphere, and that the close
pavement of polygonal spines presents but little surface to the action of the
water. The suckers of the actinal side are also very powerful and numerous,”’
—A. Agassiz, ‘‘ Rev. Echini.”’

SCUTELLIDA.

Mellita testudinata, Klein.

Specimens from Galveston, Texas, presented by Mr. J. R. Scupham.

Dr. Blake called the attention of the Academy to investigations
he is making in determining the molecular properties of minerals.

Reeutar Merrtine, Aucusr 16, 1875.

President and Vice-Presidents being absent, Dr. Kellogg was
called to the Chair.

Twenty-five members present.

Donations to the Museum: Silver ore from Nevada, from O.
G. Leach. Thirteen specimens of ore, from Louis Lewis. Three
specimens of ore, from L. Kaplan; Twenty specimens of Duran-
gite, from Jos. T. Boyd. Five specimens of ore, from B. B. Minor.

Four specimens of ore, from Geo. W. Dent; also from the same
donor, nut gall, vegetable wax from the Andes, Orchilla from
Mexico, Camel’s hair from Calcutta, and Chinese envelopes.
From A. J. Severance, specimens of rock, (core from Diamond
Drill) from Oregon, California and Australia. Quicksilver ore
from Santa Clara County, from A. K. Grimm. Silicified wood
found 300 feet deep in Manzanita Mine, Nevada County, Cali-

160 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

fornia, from J. H. Wood. Fossil shells from Contra Costa
County, and Cement Rock from same locality, donated by F. A.
Walley. Silver ores from Jas. D. Stevenson.

A collection of forty-eight specimens of birds and mammals
was presented by Professor Esmark, of the Royal University of
Norway.

Dr. Kellogg spoke of his recent trip to Mendocino County.
Among other things he had discovered there a true thorn—a
California production.

Dr. Gibbons spoke of the remarkable climatic phenomena oc-
curring last winter both here and in Europe.

Ree@vutaR Merrtine, Sepremper 6, 1875.

Vice-President Edwards in the chair.
Thirty-four members present.

Joseph O’Connor, J. P. Moore and G. H. Sanders were
elected resident members.

Wn. Barber and H. Pander were proposed for membership.

Donations to the Museum: From A. W. Crawford, twenty-four
species of Marine shells from California, Mexico and New Zea-
land; ten species of fresh-water shells from the eastern rivers of
North America; twenty-one specimens of minerals, Arizona, Cal-
ifornia and Colorado. Mr. W.J. Fisher presented fifteen species
of Marine and Land shells from Japan. Charles Kaeding do-
nated eight Ornithological specimens. Mr. Blunt presented
specimens of Procyon Hernandzvi, Taxidea Americana and Me-
phites occidentalis. Mr. F. Gruber presented specimens of Car-
dinalis igneus, Cyanospiza cyanea, Leucostictea tephroctes, and
Japan thrush. Mr. G. W. Dent donated Kouri gum from New
Zealand, and crude India Rubber from Mexico. J. G. Riley

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 161]

presented ore from Lake County. Cornelius Cole presented
fibrous Asbestos from Maryland and from Elko County, Nevada.

Mr. Edwards spoke of his recent trip to Mt. Shasta, partic-
ularly with reference to the California ‘‘ Pitcher Plant,” (Dar-
lingtonia Californica) found in great abundance in that locality,
as follows:

Darlingtonia Californica. Torrey.
BY HENRY EDWARDS.

Some time since I promised to bring before the notice of the Academy the
few facts I had observed with regard to the remarkable pitcher-plant (Darling-
tonia Californica), and by adding to them as much information as I could
collect with reference not only to this species, but also to those allied to it in
habits and structure, it is my hope that more extended observations may yet
be made by some of our members upon this very singular product of the
vegetable kingdom.

The Sarracceniacee, the family to which our Darlingtonia belongs, is one of
the smallest known to botanists, containing only three genera and eight species.
Its place in classification has been assigned between Nympheacee, the family
of the water-lily, and Papaveracee, that containing the poppies. Its geo-
graphical distribution is remarkable, the whole of the species of the family
being confined to the American continent. Thus, the genus Sarracenia con-
tains six species, all of them natives of the Atlantic States, and only one of
them having at all an extensive range, viz.: Sarracenia purpurea, of Linneus,
which is found from lat. 48 N. to Southern Florida, and westward as far as
Ohio. The remaining species S. pittacina, Michx., S. rubra, Walt., 8. Drum-
mondii, Croome, S. flava, Lin., and S. variolaris, Michx., are all confined to
the Southern States; the last named species being probably the most abundant,
the others being only met with in favored localities. According to Dr. Asa
Gray, the genus was named by Tournefort in honor of Dr. Sarrazin of Quebec,
who early in the present century forwarded a description of the best known
species, viz., S. purpurea, to Kurope. Since the time of its discovery, plants
have constantly been forwarded to England and to the Continent, and now
very many of the greenhouses of the old world boast the possession of our
pitcher flowers. Another genus, Heliamphora, of Bentham, contains but one
species, H. nutans, Benth., a native of boggy places in British Guiana. It
is remarkable in its family for the scape containing sometimes five or six
nodding, blush-white, or rose-colored flowers; those of the other genera being
solitary, and mostly dull yellow, or purplish in color. The remaining genus,-
Darlingtonia, is a native of this State, and the only one of the group found
west of the Rocky Mountains. It contains but one species, D. Californica,
the subject of our present consideration.

This remarkable plant was first described by the late Dr. Jno. Torrey from
specimens forwarded to him by I. D. Brackenridge, Assistant Botanist to the

162 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

United States Surveying Expedition under Captain Wilkes, in 1842, who
detected it growing in a marsh bordering a small tributary of the Upper
Sacramento River, afew miles above Shasta Peak. Dr. Torrey, in his de-
scription, which will be found in the ‘‘Smithsonian Contribution to Knowl-
edge, Vol. VI, 1853,’’ says:

‘“Owing to the lateness of the season (it was October), the flowers had
passed, and not even a single seed-vessel was found, but only the leaves and
tall scapes, with the remains of a single capsule. The leaves, however, were
so peculiar that no doubt was entertained of the plant being either a Sarra-
cenia, or a near ally of that genus. Without the flowers, nothing further
could be determined respecting it; but, from the bracteate scape and deeply
parted lamina of the leaves, it seemed more than probable that it was distinct
from Sarracenia. Long had I been hoping to receive the plant in a more
complete state, when it was at last brought to me by my friend, D. G. W.
Hulse, of New Orleans, who found it in flower in May, 1851, in the same
region, and perhaps in the very spot in which it was discovered many years
before by Mr. Brackenridge. The plant proves to be generically distinct
from Sarracenia, as well as from the genus Heliamphora of Bentham; and I
take great pleasure in dedicating it to my highly esteemed friend, Dr. Wm.
Darlington, of West Chester, Pennsylvania, whose botanical works have con-
tributed sv largely to the scientific reputation of our country. The genus
dedicated to the veteran botanist by De Candolle has been reduced to a sec-
tion of Desmanthus by Bentham; and a California plant, from an imperfect
specimen of which I had recently indicated a genus under that name, proves
to be only a variety of Styraw.”’

It may be well to add to this interesting note of Dr. Torrey, that Darling-
tonia differs generically from Sarracenia by the forked blade of the leaf, and
by the shape of the stigma. The flower of the former is stated to be, ‘‘ when
fully expanded, about two inches in diameter; the calyx consists of five straw-
colored acute sepals; the petals, of a like number, and pale in color, are
narrowed and concave at the apex and broad below; the twelve to fifteen
stamens are nearly hidden by the projecting ovary, which is top-shaped,
slightly five-angled, and crowned by a short style, with a five-lobed stigma.
The fruit is a five-celled capsule, with numerous seeds.’’ I may here remark
that, though the flower is said by Dr. Torrey to be nodding at the apex of
the stalk, I did not find it so. In August last, when I first met with the plant
in the neighborhood of Mount Shasta, the flowers had become perfectly erect,
and most of the capsules had burst and discharged their seed. It struck me
that this may be owing to a careful provision of nature, which aitorded the
plant, as it became erect in ripening, an opportunity of spreading its seeds
to a greater distance than it could do if the flower continued in a drooping
position. The seeds themselves are armed at their extremity with small
bristles, which cause them to adhere to the Sphagnum and other bog plants
of their habitat, and thus secure them against being washed away by any
excess of water in the bogs in which the plant has its home. Interesting as
the fiower of Darlingtonia is, however, it yields in general attractiveness to
the leaves, which are not only peculiar in form and structure, but perform
one of those curious functions in pature, the object of which we can by no

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 163

means clearly understand, but which are none the less calculated to excite
our wonder and admiration. Viewed from a little distance, a growth of
Darlingtonias presents a most beautiful and singular appearance, having a
fanciful resemblance to a number of yellow hooded snakes, with head erect,
in the act of making the fatal spring. I may here observe incidentally, that
caput-serpentis would have been an appropriate specific name. The bright
yellow, and, in some cases, almost orange color of the hoods, also suggests a
growth of giant orchids; and it is probably, in some degree, to this resem-
blance to a flower that the leaves are indebted for their faculty of entrapping
insects, which is the most remarkable feature of the plant. The leaf, which
is tubular for the whole length, sometimes reaches the height of three feet
six inches, and has a peculiar twist in its stem, always bending in one direc-
tion, the course of this twist being marked on the edge of the leaf by a
winged membrane, increasing in width from the base to its termination at
the mouth of the pitcher. The apex of the leaf is a large, swollen, reticulated
hood, sometimes, in well grown plants, as large as a man’s fist, divided in
front and above the opening into two lanceolate lobes, which are curved
downwards, and are strongly marked with purplish veins, these colored veins
being also continued on the inner surface of the tube for about one-third of
its distance. For more than half its length the interior of the tube is smooth
and marked with semi-transparent reticulations, but from that distance to
the base it becomes more opaque; and it is furnished with a closely set series
of fine, spinous hairs, laid thickly against the walls of the tube, and all
_ pointing downwards. Examined under the microscope, these hairs present
no trace of barbs or hooks, but are simply sharp points, hardened and tough-
ened towards their extremity.

The whole of this structure appears to be admirably adapted for the singu-
lar habit of ensnaring insects, which is so wonderful a feature of the economy
of Darlingtonia and its allies. The insects may easily be led to mistake the
brightly colored hood for a flower, and wandering into its treacherous recesses,
find a smooth passage at the top of the tube lighted by the reticulations of
the leaves, and excreting a slight amount of viscous substance, slightly sweet,
and of the consistence of honey. Passing along this passage, they at last
reach the bottom, find on attempting to retrace their steps that escape is im-
possible, and their wings becoming useless by contact with the viscid dis-
charge from the walls of the leaf, and the moisture secreted at the bottom of
the tube, they sink to their death in large numbers, the tube sometimes being
filled to the depth of from six to seven inches with the remains of insects in
the various stages of decomposition.

I do not attempt to speak authoritatively upon the subject, but I am inclined
to think that no process similar to that of digestion goes on within the plant,
but that the fluid mass derived from the decay of the imprisoned insects
descends through the tube into the earth, and is taken up by absorption,
through the roots, thus acting as a kind of liquid manure. It is true that in
the dead leaves the hard integuments of insects, such as the elytra of beetles,
and the bodies of wasps and hornets are to be found undecayed, but this may
be because the liquid secreted by the plant is not powerful enough to cause
decomposition of these parts before the plant itself decays. An analysis of

164 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

the fluid found within the tube, and of the leaf itself, would be of service to
decide this point, but the structure of the plant prevents the rejection of par-
ticles not needed for its subsistence, as is the case with Drosera, Utricularia,
and Dionea. It would appear that all order of insects are lured to the fatal
embrace of Darlingtonia, and it astonished me to find that I could recognize
80 Many species among the remains I examined. I cut open and carefully
studied the contents of about forty tubes in all, and found that I could dis-
tinguish no less than forty-three species of insects, which I am able to tabu-
late as follows:

Order—Coleoptera: Genera—Platynus, Serica, Coccinella (2), Hippodamia;
number of species, five.

Order—Hymenoptera: Genera—Apis, Vespa, Ichnewmon; number of spe-
cies, three.

Order—Orthoptera: Genera—Acrydium (2), Tettix (?); number of species,
three.

Order—Neuroptera: Genera—Mantispa, Myrmeleo, Agrion; number of spe-
cies, three.

Order— Diptera: Genera—Tipula, Musca, Tachina, Asilus; number of
species, twenty or more.

Order—Lepidoptera: Genera—Colias, Agrotis, Botys; number of species,
three.

Order—Hemiptera: Genera—Notonecta, Reduvins (?) (2); number of spe-
cies, four.

Order—Arachinda: Genera—(unknown); number of species, two.

It is probable that this list could have been very considerably increased,
but I was sufficiently convinced that all the insect orders were represented in
the seething pot of the Darlingtonia’s kitchen. The greenest tubes—those
which are of comparatively recent growth—seem to be less attractive to insects,
and I have always found the largest quantity of remains in those which are
richest and deepest in color. Across the opening of the hood a small spider,
seemingly allied to the genus Thomisus, spins its web, as if aware of the
attractive nature of the plant, and conscious that its own prey could be thus
easily captured. I have also invariably found among the mass of decay some
living larve of a small dipterous insect, probably one of the Tipulide ; and I
observe that a similar circumstance has been recorded by Dr. I. F. Melli-
champ of Bluffton, North Carolina, with reference to the pitchers of Sarracenia
variolosa. Dr. Mellichamp’s paper is so interesting that I make no apology
for transcribing the following: ‘‘ The base of the tube of S. variolosa secretes
a watery fluid, which is not sweet nor odorous, but which proves quickly fatal
to all insects that fall into it. The whole inner surface is covered with very
minute, closely appressed prickles, perfectly smooth, and pointed downwards,
which render it impossible for an insect to ascend by walking, even when
the leaf is laid nearly horizontal. Within the somewhat dilated rim of the
tube, there is a band half an inch in width, dotted with a sweet secretion,
attractive to insects, but not intoxicating. This also extends downwards to
the edge of the outer wing to the very ground, thus alluring many creeping

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 165

insects, and especially ants, to the more dangerous feeding ground above,
where once losing foothold, it is impossible to regain it. Even flies escape
but rarely, the form of the tube and lid seeming to obstruct their flight. As
the result, the tube becomes filled to the depth of some inches with a mass of
decaying ants, flies, hornets and other insects.

Within this there is always found a white grub feeding upon the material
thus gathered, perhaps the larva of a large fly which has been observed to
stand upon the edge of the tube, and drop an egg into it. Soon after the
full development of the leaf, the upper portion becomes brown and shrivelled,
which is due to still another larva, the young of a small moth, which feeds
upon the substance of the leaf, leaving only the outer epidermis, and works
its way from above downward, until in due time it spins its cocoon, suspending
it by silken threads just above the surface of the insect debris at the bottom.
The whole forms a series of relationship, and an instance of contrivance and
design, the full purport of which is by no means fully understood.’’ It will
thus be seen that the same general habit obtains through the whole family of
Sarraceniacee, though in details there are to be found differences in some
striking particulars. In the first place, it is more than probable that the liquid
secreted in the base of the tubes of Sarracenia is pure water, deposited from
the atmosphere,* but the shape of the hood in Darlingtonia, which totally
covers the opening of the tube, suggests some other cause for the presence of
moisture at its bottom. This liquid, which is Sarracenia, is said by Dr.
Mellichamp tc be inodorous, is in our California plant most disgusting in its
smell, and after handling a number of specimens of the tubes, it is necessary
to use some disinfectant like ammonia or chloride to remove the disagreeable
ordor. The larva found among the debris of Sarracenia, though belonging
undoubtedly to the dipterous order, is nevertheless of a totally different genus
from that found in Darlingtonia, as the latter are very minute, almost micro-
scopic in size, though it is possible that more than one species may yet be
discovered. I should also state that I found no ants whatever in the tubes of
Californica, though subsequent observations may yet add to our knowledge
the fact of their presence among the victims. Nor car I find ary trace of a
lepidopterous larva, like that noted by Dr. Mellichamp, which was probably
the early stage of some species of Tortrix. Careful and continued observation
will, however, doubtless bring to light many new facts connected with the
economy of this singular plant. The stems of Darlingtonia are generally
marked with some ferruginous blotches, which are due to the presence of a
small fungus, which has been examined by our fellow-member, Dr. Harkness,
and by him pronounced to be a new species of -Trichobasis. Dr. Harkness,
while intending to publish the results of his observations, permits me to add
that he proposes to name the species Trichobasis Darlingtonie. The Indians
of the district around Mount Shasta are well acquainted with the fly-catching
habit of Darlingtonia, but I regret to say that I could not discover their native
name of the plant, nor could I learn that they ascribe to it any medicinal proper-

* NoTE—I have since been assured by Dr. Mellichamp that the liquid is by no means
pure water, but an excretion of the plant itself. H. E.

166 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

ties. I was themore surprised at this, as I was aware thatto Sarracenia purpurea
is credited a large amount of virtue in cases of small-pox, a paper on its efficacy
in this terrible disease having been contributed to Land and Water in 1871,
by Captain Hardy of the Royal Artillery, who spent some time in Newfound-
land, and who derived his knowledge of the value of the pitcher plant from
the Indians of that region. The portion of the plant used is the root, which
has been introduced into England, and is sold there at the high rate of 28
shillings per pound. I mention this fact as it is more than probable that our
own species may possess some hidden virtue which may prove equally as val-
uable to mankind.

I may state that Darlingtonia, though certainly a local plant, is by no means
rare in the districts in which itis found. The locality nearest to San Fran-
cisco in which it has been detected is in the foothills of the Sierra, about 10
miles from Nevada City. It is, however, most abundant in the region about
Mount Shasta, where it may be found in at least thirty or forty places within
a radius of fifteen or twenty miles. It grows in boggy spots on the sides of
mountains, and particularly about those known to hunters as ‘‘ deer licks,”’
which are abundant along the banks of the Upper Sacramento and its tribu-
tary streams. Extreme altitude is not necessary to its growth, as it is found
from 1,000 to 5,000 feet. Mr. Robinson, of the Field newspaper, who visited
this country a few years ago, chiefly for the purpose of observing the plant
in its native haunts, states that itis by no means difficult of cultivation, and
that it is ‘‘ best treated by being grown in a soil of peat or peat and chopped
sphagnum, kept wet, not merely moist, the pots or pans to be placed on a wet
bottom—frame or cool-house treatment being the best in winter, warm green-
house or temperate stove in summer.”’

In concluding these imperfect remarks, perhaps I may be permitted to
hope that they may be the means of directing more perfect attention to this
remarkable plant, which must always be regarded as one of the many vege-
table wonders of California.

Reeutar Mretine, SepremBer 20, 1875.

In the absence of the President and Vice-Presidents, Charles
Wolcott Brooks was called to the Chair.

Fifty-two members present.

Donations to the Museum: From L. Higbee, Los Angeles,
specimen from an artesian well 189 feet deep. From Henry
Chapman, Fossil Shells—cretaceous—from Alameda County.
From F. A. Walley, Fossil Shells found in sandstone in Marin

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 167

County. From C. C. Coleman, Ramie fiber. From C. D.
Gibbes, fibrous Asbestos and Manganese. From Star & Mathi-
son, Plumbago from Ceylon, Antimony from Nevada, and ‘‘ Reg-
ulus” from San Francisco. From Charles Reed of San Mateo,
Argentiferous Galena from Sacramento mine, San Mateo County,
Gold ore from San Gregorio Creek, and Indian implements
(stone) from Redwood City. From G. W. Dent, two Lizards
from China as prepared for medicine by Chinese. From J.
Daniels & Co., Scotch Granite. From Holmes & Dawson,
Suisun Marble. From Fred. MaCrellish, Sulphur from Sulphur
Banks, Humboldt County, Nevada.

Mr. Williamson read a paper on ‘‘ Fish Culture.”

T. J. Lowry read a paper describing a new method of deter-
mining positions in Hydrographic Surveying, as follows:

A New Method of Determining Positions of the Sounding-
Boat—Application of the Two-Point Problem to Hydro-
graphic Surveying.

BY T. J. LOWRY.

This is called the age of practice—the inventive age. And, undoubtedly,
the prevailing tendency of the science of this age is synthetic. The problem
it places before itself is not so much to discover isolated truths as to combine,
to harmonize, to generalize, to utilize those already found out. Instead,
then, of indulging in ineffectual wanderings in the labyrinths of analytics,
let us pause for a moment in the field of synthetical geometry—where Euclid,
Newton, and Bessell deigned to labor—and see if there are not ‘‘ seed fallen
by the wayside, among rocks and in stony places,’’ which we may cause to
yield profitably for the exact arts.

The increased traffic and travel on the rivers, bays, lakes, gulfs, and oceans,
within the last half-century, have made the accurate mappings of the topog-
raphy of these water-basins of the earth commercial, national necessities.
The civilized nations of Europe have long felt and acted upon these demands
of navigation and commerce; nor has the United States been left in arrears, for
already has she executed a system of hydrography—even extending her re-
searches into the Gulf Stream and kindred inter-ocean rivers—securing
results which challenge at once the wonder and admiration of the scientific
and navigating worlds.

The hydrographic chart is the lamp to the navigator’s path over the intri-
cate windings of the waters of the earth; the revealer of rocks, shoals, reefs,
hidden beneath smiling seas, and therefore the secret to a safe navigation,
and hence successful international commerce. Does it not, then, gentlemen,
behoove us, as a scientific body, to make all possible improvements in the
theory and practice of hydrography?

168 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Hydrographic surveying was reduced to a real, a practical entity, by the
discovery of the three-point problem, by Pothenot. This problem being wide
in its application, accurate in its determinations, and yet most simple in its
graphic solutions, has, from the first, stood the grand central truth of prac-
tical hydrography. But to fix a position by this problem is required, on
three known points, two connected angles observed simultaneously. And
with only two known signals in sight it utterly fails to fix a position. Now
it is to remedy these defects, to fill up these gaps left open by the three-point
problem, and thus enable the hydrographer to determine his position under
a wider range of contingencies, that I propose the application of the two-
point problem to hydrographic surveying.

In determining positions of the sounding boat, equalin accuracy, and sec-
ond only in point of usefulness to the three-point problem, is the two-point
problem, which, with its many varied phases and fewer known points,
greatly increases the hydrographer’s capability of ascertaining his position
under every contingency. This problem determines any two points on an
unknown range (or inter-range) if at each of these points are measured the
(two) angles contained by this range and two known signals. The boat’s
path may either coincide with the range or inter-range (see Fig. 1), or cross
it at two or more points (as shown in Fig. 2). In the first case we can fix
the position of the boat at any two or more instants by ‘‘ angling ”’ at those
instants on two known signals (‘‘A’’ and ‘‘ B’’), and the undetermined range.
When the boat only crosses the range at two or more points, its position
can be fixed by this problem only at these points, and that, of course, by
‘‘angling’’ at the very instants of crossing the range. The better condi-
tioned the quadrilateral, formed by the two known points and the two places
of observation, the better will these places be determined; and will be wholly
undetermined when the right line, through the places of observation, pro-
longed, traverses either one or both of the observed signals.

Where ranges are ready prepared for us—as when adjacent to cities with
their flag-staffs, chimneys and spires, or where the country rises into high-
lands and mountain peaks back from the shore—the determination of a boat’s
position by this problem is alike easy and expeditious. And even where nat-
ure does not offer such ready prepared facilities, we can readily supply them,
where the water is comparatively shallow, by dropping temporary spar buoys
(a pole with rock to one end). One buoy will furnish a stern range, if we
have another visible stationary object directly astern, or an inter-range if di-
rectly ahead. But if there is no such stationary object visible, then continue
the line of soundings, and drop further along a second buoy, and at the same
instant measure the angles contained by two known signals, and the first
buoy, and from another point on the range of these buoys, catch the angles
between this range and any two known signals, and the soundings are deter-
mined. By cutting on a third point on shore, from two or more of these de-
termined positions of the boat, it can be fixed in position without visiting the
shore or even stopping the sounding boat; other signals may thus readily be
substituted for those swept away by storms, etc.

The buoys thus dropped being determined fixed points, may serve as sig-
nals for carrying a hydrographic triangulation further on out off shore. This

mutt rie Ns nag
eh ae fan hi

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 169

problem will thus prove most useful in the survey of off-shore shoals and
reefs, and in the location of buoys, where only two signals are in sight. And
it may, moreover, be found especially serviceable in the surveys of those
large shallow bodies of water which abound along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts
of the Southern States, where the low shores and hazy atmosphere render it
extremely difficult to keep three signals in sight.

The geometrical construction of this problem is accomplished in the follow-
ing obvious manner: On A B, in Fig. 3, describe segments containing re-
spectively the angles A M Baud A P B, draw the chord B y, to cut off seg-
ment, B A My, containing the angle, B My, and another chord A a, cutting
off segment, A B P x, containing the angle, AP«. The points. x and y, will
be in the same right line with M and P; join x y, which produce both ways
till it cuts the circumferences in Mand P, which will be the required places
of observation.

The triogmetrical analysis furnishing the readiest means for computing
this problem, is that known as the indirect. Thus, let any number, as 10 or
100, represent mp, in Fig. No. 1. Then in the triangle, Amp, are known
the angles, Amp, (=A MP), and Apm(=AP UM), with side, mp, from
whence Am may be found. In the triangle, mp b, are’ known angles, m pb

=MPB), andbmp (= MP), with mp, to find bm. Now, in the triangle,
Amb, are known angle, Amb (=A MB), and the sides, Adm and bm, from
which Ab may be found. And now, from the similarity of figures, 4b: AB::
mp: M P, and by like proportions any other of the required sides may be
found.

The two-point problem finds a ready graphic solution by laying off each
set of observed angles on a separate piece of tracing paper, and shifting
these two papers until the lines of sight traverse each its proper point,
then prick the vertices of these angles on to the sheet, and they are (Zand P)
the required points of observation.

But a neater graphic solution, based upon very obvious geometrical consid-
erations, is found in the three-arm protractor: with the angles measured at
M (see Fig. 3) set off on the proper limbs of the protractoz, cause its left
and middle arms to traverse A and B, and draw a line along its right arm.
Shift center of protractor to some point, as m—taking care to keep A and B
bisected by left and middle arms—and draw another line along right arm and
y, the point of intersection of these lines, will be a point in the right line
through the places of observation, M and P. Now, set off the angles ob-
served at P on the corresponding limbs of protractor, bisect A and B with
the fiducial edges of the middle and right arms. Draw line along left arm;
shift center of protractor to some point as p, and with middle and right arms
still bisectin's A and B, draw line along left arm, and 2, the point of intersec-
tion of these {wo lines, will be a second point in right line through M and P.
Draw an indefinite right line through randy. Now, with the angles observed
at P on the protractor, cause its middle and right arms to traverse A and B
while the true edge of its left arm coincides with line through z and y; dot
its center, and we have P, one of the places of observation; and, in like
manner, find-JZ, the other place of observation.

Proc. Cau. AcapD. Sci., Vou. VI.—12,

CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF S8CIE

its

FIG.

MANE.

FIG,

170 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

These are the solutions of the case of this problem where only two known
signals are involved. There are, however, two other cases: First, where from
one position of the boat signals A and B are visible, but from the other only
B and C are seen; here the boat’s positions are equally well determinate, and
¢he geometrical construction and graphic solutions are the same as above
given—but the trigonometrical analysis varies slightly (see Narrien’s Geod-
esy). And in the second case, where first position of boat sees only signals
A and B, and its second position only C and D, these positions are still deter-
minate, and the graphic solutions and geometrical construction are identical
with those already given, but the trigonometrical analysis is different, as
shown by the writer on page 19, vol. 2, of The Analyst.

The two-point problem may, moreover, be found most serviceable in restor-
ing lost stations. Suppose the case illustrated in Fig. No. 4—where (the sur-
face mark of) station @ is lost and its restoration is desired. Having an ap-
proximate idea of the position of the lost station, , choose two such points,
Mand P, as make at once the quadrilateral, A 6 P M, and the triangles, A
MG, BP Gand G M P, ‘“ well conditioned.’’ Then at Mand P successive-
ly measnre the angles B MA, B MP, A P B and A P M, and find—either
by construction or computation, as above shown—the unknown sides and
angles of the quadrilateral, A B P M. Now from the original triangulation
are known the sides @ A and G B, and angles G A B, and G B A; and the
angle 4 B P=P BA—G BA. We hence have two sides, G B and P B, and
included angle, G B P, to find P G and angle B P G, the distance and direc-
tion of the lost station, G, from the point, P. But if no linear measure is
available, then mark the direction of G from the point, P, by range poles, n
o, and shift the theodolite to M. Find angle, A M G, in like manner to that
which found angle, B P G. Then cover A with telescope, turn it in azimuth
equal to angle, A M G, and mark the direction of its line of sight with poles,
ih. We then have marked out two ranges, 7h and o n, intersecting at ‘‘ the
lost station,’’ G.

And equally applicable when on land searching for a lost station with three
signals in sight, is the maneuver so well understood in hydrography of taking ©
from the sheet the angles subtended by the three signals at the lost station,
setting them off on two one-angle, or one two-angle sextant, and shifting the
position of the observer till the images of these signals coincide in his horizon
glass, when he will be close on the ‘‘lost station.”’

Dr. Blake read the following:

On the Results of Glacial Action at the head of John-
son’s Pass, in the Sierras.

BY JAMES BLAKE, M. D.

In a recent trip in the Sierras, at the head of the south fork of the American
River, I met with some evidences of glacial action which I think are worthy
of being recorded as furnishing some indications of the character of the
climate during the middle part of the glacial epoch. The head of the valley

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 171

of the south fork of the American River terminates in Johnson’s Pass, a gap
in the western summit of the Sierras, about 7,500 feet above the level of the
sea. The break in the mountains extends for about a mile and a quarter
from north to south, and is nearly level. The upper part of the American
Valley, for three or four miles, rises by a gentle slope up the pass, and is from
half a mile to a mile wide, with a flat meadow bottom of mountain meal,
bounded on each side by moraine blocks, lodged against the sides of the
mountains. The head of the pass terminates by a pretty steep escarpment
which forms a part of the western boundary of Lake Tahoe Valley, lying
about 1,000 feet below. The south side of the American Valley, near the
pass, is formed by a mountain about 9,000 feet high, the face of which, oppo-
site the head of the pass, suddenly changes its direction, turning to the south
to form the west wall of the southern termination of Lake Valley. To the
north, the pass is separated from Echo Lake Valley by a vast bank of moraine
matter, which formed at one time a la‘eral moraine of Echo Lake glacier, but
which has been subsequently increased and gradually sloped off towards the
valley by the bed of the glacier being forced up over it during the middle of
the glacial epoch. As this Echo Lake glacier has evidently been an important
element in causing the glacial action at the upper part of the American Val-
ley, a short description of its old bed will be useful. The Echo Lake Valley
is about four miles long, running in a direction southeast, northwest, and
terminating towards the northern or upper end in a perfect amphitheater, sur-
rounded by high peaks. The chord of this amphitheater or cirque measures
probably two miles and a half, affording ample area for the formation of a
vast glacier. The valley abuts to the southeast against the western wall of
Lake valley at the north termination of the depression which forms Johnson’s
Pass. The bottom of the valley is now occupied by two lakes, one of which
is a mile and three-quarters long, and a quarter of a mile broad, with a depth
of water of 150 feet. The other, or upper lake, is smaller and not more than
thirty-five feet deep. They are separated by a belt of rock a few yards broad,
in which the granite presents a more schistose character. The rocks on the
border of the lake show evident marks of glacial action to a height of 400
feet above its level, and moraine matter has been deposited fully 200 feet
higher, so that the Echo Lake glacier must have been between seven and eight
hundred feet thick. During the earlier part of the glacial epoch it was pre-
cipitated over an almost perpendicular cliff, a thousand feet high, into Lake
Valley, and whilst pursuing this course it piled up a vast moraine on its south-
west border, the upper end of which terminates at a height of about 300 feet
above the level of the lake. This now forms the divide between Echo Lake
and the American River Valley. The true nature of this embankment is well
shown where it terminates above Lake Valley, and also at its upper part
where it joins a spur of the mountain, but the greater portion of it has been
so completely covered in by detritus, under the form of mountain meal, and
the few rocks that appear on the surface are so completely rounded and
polished that but for the appearances at the upper and lower ends, its true
character as a lateral moraine would not be suspected.

As before stated, the lower end of Echo Lake Valley terminates at the edge
of the escarpment forming a portion of the sides of Lake Valley, and it

Tey ges - PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

was evidently over this escarpment that the glacier flowed during a long
time; but as Lake Valley itself became filled with ice, and its glacier reached
to the height of six or seven hundred feet above the side of the valley at
Johnson’s Pass, Echo Lake glacier could no longer escape into the valley,
but was deflected with the vast ice stream from Lake Valley down the valley
of the American River. In taking this new direction, the bed of the glacier
was forced up over what had been before its lateral moraine, grinding off the
angles of the rocks, and filling up the interstices with mountain meal, so that
the moraine, particularly towards the American Valley, presents a gentle
slope, with only an occasional boulder visible. The Echo Lake side of the
embankment is much steeper, and a few feet below its crest has a ridge of
moraine rocks, with perfectly sharp edges. This ridge is separated from the
top of the embankment by a shallow depression, a few yards broad. These
rocks had evidently been deposited on the ridge of mountain meal as lateral
moraine, after the Lake Valley glacier had retreated below the level of the
pass so that the Echo Lake glacier could resume its former course.

On the south side of the head of the pass, a large quantity of moraine matter
has been deposited from the glacier coming in from the south end of Lake Val-
ley. Until Lake Valley itself had been filled with ice up to the level of the
pass, the moraine matter from this glacier would be deposited in the valley;
but as soon as the ice reached the level of the pass, a large moraine was de-
posited, extending nearly half a mile across the head of the pass, and then bend-
ing to the west down the American Valley. This moraine, at the point where
it leaves the motintain, is apparently about four hundred feet high, and a
quarter of a mile thick at its base, and is composed of large masses of gran-
ite, with their edges quite sharp. Even a mile below the head of the pass,
the moraine is 150 feet high and 400 feet thick, here forming the north wall
of the basin of Andrean Lake, a small lake about 300 yards long and 250
broad, situated directly at the foot of the mountain, on the south side of the
American Valley. The rocks at this part of the moraine are more or less
rounded, and the interstices filled with the finer detritus. The middle of the
valley, near its head, and for some distance down, is covered with a thick de-
posit of mountain meal, interspersed with large boulders, which have evidently
been glaciated from the northeast. This has been opened to the depth of
twenty feet without reaching the country rock. It is completely unstratified,
and contains a few boulders, well rounded, but not very large, at least such
was the case in a cut and tunnel made in the deposit towards the north side
of the valley. In making the cut, a layer of gravel was found about eighteen
inches from the surface; it was about two inches thick, and composed of
rounded quartzose and other pebbles, and must have been derived from some
disintegrated conglomerate beds. The only probable source of this thick
deposit of finer detritus is from the bed of Echo Lakes, and the glaciated
mountains to the northeast of the lower lake. It is found forming the bed
of the American Valley for three or four miles from the summit of the pass,
but beyond this point it gradually disappears, so that, at six miles from the
summit, it was found extremely difficult to find any dirt to fill into the crev-
ices between the rocks, when making a road through the valley.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 173

Such is a general sketch of the results of glacial action at the head of
American Valley—results which could only have been produced under totally
different climatic conditions than a mere diminution of the mean annual tem-
perature. It is evident that the formation of the large moraine across the
head of the pass, from the glacier coming from the head of Lake Valley,
could only have taken place when the surface of the mountain at the head of
the pass was uncoyered by snow, at least duringa part of the year; or, in
otber words, at the time that the glacier in Lake Valley had attained a thick-
ness of more than a thousand feet, there was no permanent glacier at the
head of the pass. At present, the snow by the end of the winter is from ten
to twenty feet deep at the head of the pass, and from four to eight feet deep
in Lake Valley, and it has meltedin the valley six to eight weeks before it
disappears from the head of the pass. With a colder climate, in which,
however, the relative temperature of the summer and winter should be the
same as at present, it is evident that long before the Lake Valley glacier had
attained a thickness of one thousand feet, a glacier some hundreds of feet
thick must have occupied the head of the pass, so that the moraine matter
brought down by the southern tributaries of Lake Valley glacier could not
have been deposited there, but must have been carried down the valley of
the American River as soon as the Lake Valley glacier was thick enough to
force the ice stream in that direction. The most probable climatic conditions
under which such a deposition of moraine matter as is found at the head of
the American Valley could take place are, a colder winter with a very heavy
snow-fall, and a hot summer, during which the snow would be removed from
the surface, even at an elevation of 7,000 feet, when not fed by glaciers. The
gradual filling up of Lake Valley by ice, was the result of the many glaciers
coming into it on all sides, as has been shown by Prof. J. LeConte, and
which had their origin in mountains from 1,500 to 2,000 feet above the level
of the pass. That these ice streams were pouring into Lake Valley when the
head of the American Valley was comparatively free from ice, is proved, also,
by the formation of the large lateral moraine, from Echo Lake glacier, on the
north side of the valley. Another fact that would indicate the rapid disap-
pearance of ice at the upper part of the American Valley during the height
of the glacial epoch is, the comparatively slight longitudinal extension of the
glaciers down the American Valley. Although there is undoubted evidence
that in Lake Valley, and at the head of Johnson’s Pass, the ice attained a
thickness of six hundred feet above the level of the pass, yet the larger part
of the terminal moraine matter has been deposited within six or seven miles
of the head of the pass, and at an elevation of only 1,000 feet below the top .
of the pass. Now, the rapid disappearance of this American Valley glacier,
fed, as it was, by the Echo Lake glacier, and also by the vast ice stream from
Lake Valley, would indicate that it must have been exposed to a much higher
summer temperature than prevails at present. The topographical formation
of the American Valley would also favor the melting of the ice, as the valley
opens directly on the heated plains of the Sacramento, and thus affords a
channel for the hot air of the plains during the summer, and for the moisture-

174 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

laden air from the warmer ocean that probably existed far on into the glacial
epoch.* ;

Should the facts above stated admit of the interpretation I have given them,
it is evident that they are inconsistent with the views of those who regard
the glacial epoch as the result of mere geological changes in the distribu-
tion of land and water. That these changes may have played a subordinate
part in intensifying the influence of cosmical causes is probable, just as the
immense outflows of voleanic rocks, covering so many thousands of square
miles of our continent to the depth of 1,800 to 2,000 feet, must have exerted
a great influence on the warmer climate of the Miocene. In fact, as I have
before stated to the Academy, I believe the heated term of the Miocene is
much more easily referable to geological causes than is the cold of the glacial
epoch.

Without wishing to attach too much importance to the facts above stated, I
think the evidences of glacial action at the head of Johnson’s Pass are in-
consistent with any other hypothesis than that, far on in the glacial epoch,
cold winters, with heavy snow-falls, alternated with very hot summers; and
also that, at the same period, there was no permanent ice-covering on the
surface at an elevation of 7,000 feet above the sea, at least in these latitudes.
It is, I think, only in such climatic conditions that the vast moraines at the
head of Johnson’s Pass could have been formed, particularly the embank-
ment moraine on the north side of Andrean Lake. This moraine could not
have been formed by a glacier pushing its end out into water, as Professor
LeCompte has shown was probably the case with similar moraines in Lake
Valley and Mono Lake. The only conditions under which the moraine on
the south side of the American Valley could have been formed was, that the
surface on which it rests was not covered by ice at the time the Lake Valley
glacier had reached the level of the head of the pass. The glacier from the
head of Lake Valley, by far the largest entering the valley, then deposited a
lateral moraine, stretching some distance across the head of the American
Valley. As the ice accumulated in Lake Valley, and began to deflect the
Echo Lake glacier to the west, the glacier from the south end of the valley
was also forced in the same direction, depositing its moraine where the sur-
face was still uncovered by ice, and thus laying the foundation on which
moraine matter subsequently lodged, as the rapidly melting ice during the
summer months exposed its surface, even after the rest of the valley was
permanently covered with ice.

The accompanying rough plan shows the deposition of moraine matter at

*It is probable that a glacier has extended some distance down the American Valley
below the point indicated, but this I believe to have been later in the glacial epoch, when
the glaciers at the head of the valley were possibly diminishing in thickness, and after the
great ice sculpturing in the higher mountains had been effected. I believe that it was in
the earlier stages, and during the height of the glacial epoch, that the principal ice sculp-
turing took place, caused by the sudden and great alternations of temperature. The
moraine matter deposited by the retreating glaciers was evidently very slight, in com-
parison with that deposited whilst they were increasing.

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(TO FACE PAGE 174,)

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ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 175

the head of Johnson’s Pass. I regret that, owing to an accident to my moun-
tain barometer, I was unable to obtain exact hypsometrical measurements.

Notre.—Since this paper was written, I have read Mr. Croll’s work, Climate and Time,
of which a large part is occupied in attempting to prove that during the glacial epoch the
summers must have been colder than at present. As the grounds on which his argument
is founded are more or less hypothetical, and his conclusions are, I think, inconsistent
with the slight horizontal extension of the ancient glaciers, not only in the Sierras, but,
as I have shown, also in the Puebla mountains, I must conclude that at least in this part
of the earth’s surface the glacial epoch was marked by cold winters with very heavy snow-
fall, and hot summers. The glacier coming from the south end of the Puebla range offers
even a more marked example of slight horizontal extension than that at the head of the
American Valley. This glacier had its origin in a valley six miles long and a mile broad,
surrounded by peaks from 6,000 to 7,500 feet high, and which still retain snow on them
during the whole year. At the height of the glacial epoch, this valley must have been
filled by a vast glacier which escaped into the Puebla Valley, the latter valley being at
an elevation of 4,600 feet above the sea; and yet under these circumstances the terminal
moraine does not extend more than a mile and a quarter into the valley, although at its
head, or near the foot of the mountain, it has probably a thickness of three hundred feet,

Mr. Lockington presented a communication drawing the at-
tention of the Academy to the unhealthy condition of the build-
ing, suggesting remedies therefor, and that a committee be ap-
pointed to collect funds to improve the premises.

SrrciaL Meretine, SepremBer 28, 1875.

Vice-President Edwards in the Chair.

Thirty-five members present.

By request of Mr. Edwards, General Colton, President of
Board of Trustees, explained the object of the Special Meeting.
He stated that the Board of Trustees had held a special meeting,
at which Messrs. Felton and Hittel, Attorneys for Mr. Lick,
were present. At this meeting Mr. Felton had read such parts
of Mr. Lick’s new deed, dated September 21, 1875, as were
changed from the deeds of July 16, 1874, and September 16,
1875. The Trustees had informally agreed to the changes made
by Mr. Lick. At the same meeting a deed was read, dated Sep-
tember 21, 1875, giving to the Academy, without any restrictions
whatever, the property on Market Street, formerly deeded by

176 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Mr. Lick to the Academy with certain restrictions, which are set
forth in a deed dated October 14, 1873.

This was also informally accepted by the Trustees. Although
the Trustees, under the law, and the Constitution of the Academy,
are authorized to take charge of the property of the corporation
and attend to its temporal affairs, the Board had thought it
proper in a matter of this importance, to call a meeting of the
Academy to endorse the action of the Trustees, or authorize them
to act. It was explained that the new deed to the property on
Market Street was eminently advantageous to the Society. Also
that the new ‘‘ Trust Deed” affected the Academy very slightly;
and as all the other beneficiaries but one had signed, it only re-
mained for the Academy to assent before sending it East for the
signature of John H. Lick.

General Colton called on the Secretary to read the Resolution
which the Board of Trustees proposed to adopt.

The Resolution was then read as follows:

Resolved, That the California Academy of Sciences do hereby accept the
deed of James Lick, party of the first part, Richard S. Floyd, Faxon D. Ath-
erton, Sr., Bernard D. Murphy, John H. Lick and John Nightingale, parties
of the second part, and the California Academy of Sciences, the Society of
California Pioneers, the Protestant Orphan Asylum, the Ladies’ Protection
and Relief Society, the Mechanics’ Institute, and the Society for the Preven-
tion of Cruelty to Animals, the City of San José, A. B. Forbes, J. B. Roberts,
Iva P. Rankin, Robert McElroy, J. D. B. Stillman, Horace Davis, A. S. Hal-
lidie, John Oscar Eldridge, and Lorenzo Sawyer, parties of the third part,
which said deed is dated September 21st, 1875, and all the terms and condi-
tions thereof, and do hereby release and discharge the said above-mentioned
parties of the second part, in said deed named, from the performance of any
of the duties imposed upon them by those certain deeds mentioned therein,
dated respectively on the 16th day of July, 1874, and the 16th day of Septem-
ber, 1875, which are inconsistent with the terms and conditions of said first-
mentioned deed.

Resolved, further, That David D. Colton (President) and Charles G. Yale
(Secretary), of the Board of Trustees of this corporation, be and are hereby
instructed to seal, sign, acknowledge, execute and deliver said first-mentioned
deed in the name of this corporation, and with their names attached us such
President and Secretary of the Board, and affix the corporate seal of this
Academy thereto; and their acts in compliance with the above instructions
are hereby ratified and confirmed as the act and deed of this corporation.

Resolved, further, That this corporation also accepts and receives that cer-
tain other deed from James Lick, party of the first part, to the California
Academy of Sciences, party of the second part, dated September 21st, 1875.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 177

By request of the presiding officer, Mr. Hittel, who was
present with the new ‘‘ Trust Deed” of James Lick, explained
the changes which had been made in this, compared with the
former one.

Mr. Hittel then read the deed to the property on Market
Street, stating that it had been acknowledged by Mr. Lick. It
is as follows:

JAMES LICK

CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Tus InpENTURE, made and entered into this 21st day of Sep-
tember, 1875, between James Lick, of the City and County of
San Francisco, State of California, party of the first part, and
the ‘“‘ California Academy of Sciences,” a corporation organized
and existing under the laws of the State of California, and having
its principal place of business at the said City and County of
San Francisco, the party of the second part, witnesseth:

Wuereas, Said party of the first party heretofore executed and
delivered to the said party of the second part, a certain deed,
dated on the fifteenth day of February, A. D. 1873; which said
deed was duly recorded in the office of the County Recorder of
the said City and County of San Francisco on the 20th day of
February, A. D. 1873, in Liber six hundred and ninety-six (696)
of Deeds, commencing at page three hundred and sixty-four
(364), which said deed conveyed the following described piece or
parcel of land in said City and County of San Francisco, State
aforesaid, circumscribed by a line commencing at a point on the
south-easterly line of Market Street distant one hundred and
ninety-five feet south-westward from the south-westerly corner of
Market and Fourth Streets, and running thence south-easterly
and parallel with said Fourth Street, one hundred and ninety-
five (195) feet; thence south-westerly at an angle of forty-five
degrees toa point two hundred and seventy-five (275) feet from
said south-easterly line of Market Street, which said last men-
tioned point constitutes the south-westerly corner of the hun-
dred vara lot hereinafter mentioned; thence north-westerly and
parallel with said Fourth Street, two hundred and seventy-five

178 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

(275) feet to said south-easterly line of Market Street; thence
north-easterly and along said mentioned line of Market Street
eighty (80) feet to the point of commencement. Said parcel of
land being a portion of that certain lot of land laid down and
commonly known upon the official map of said City of San Fran-
cisco, as one hundred vara lot number one hundred and twenty-
six (126), with certain reservations and exceptions, and upon
certain terms and conditions subsequent, all of which are fully
expressed in said deed, reference to which said deed is hereby
expressly made.

Anp Wuereas, Said party of the first part afterwards executed
and delivered to the said party of the second part a certain other
deed dated on the Third day of October, A. D. 1873, which said
deed was duly recorded in the office of the County Recorder of
the said City and County of San Francisco on the Fourteenth
day of October, A. D. 1873, in Liber seven hundred and eighteen
(718) of Deeds, commencing at page three, hundred and eighty-
seven (387), which said last mentioned deed granted, gave, con-
veyed and confirmed to said party of the second part, all the
lands and premises described in said first mentioned deed and
above described, with certain reservations and exceptions, and
upon certain other terms and conditions subsequent, all of which
are fully expressed in said last mentioned or second deed, refer-
ence to which is hereby expressly made.

Now Tuererore, In consideration of the premises and the
respect and esteem said party of the first part has and bears to
the said party of the second part, and the desire of the said
party of the first part to further promote the prosperity of the
party of the second part, and for the benefit of the Sciences in
general, and in order to relieve the said party of the second part
from all the terms and conditions subsequent, contained in said
above mentioned deeds, or either of them, and from any and all
terms, conditions and provisos, if any exist, the said party of the
first part hath granted, given, confirmed, remised, released, and
forever quit-claimed, and by these presents does grant, give, con-
firm, remise, release, and forever quit-claim unto the said party
of the second part all the lands and premises described in said
above mentioned deeds and hereinbefore described.

To have and to hold, all and singular, the premises hereby
granted, given, confirmed, remised, released and quit-claimed

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 179

unto the said party of the second part and its successors, in fee
simple, absolute, and without any conditions whatsoever.

In witness whereof the said party of the first part has hereunto
set his hand and seal the day and year first herein above written.

(Signed,)
JAMES LICK. [t. s.]

[Recorded September 29th, 1875, at 20 minutes past 10 o’clock, .

in Liber 801 of Deeds, page 253. |

After the reading of the deed, the resolutions prepared by the
Trustees and before read, was again read by the Secretary.

On motion of Dr. George Hewston, seconded by Charles Wol-
cott Brooks, the Resolution was adopted as read.

On motion, the Trustees were requested to convey the thanks
of the Academy to Mr. Lick.

Reeutar Meeting, Ocroser 41a, 1875.

Second Vice-President in the Chair.
Forty members present.

Dr. G. F. Becker was proposed as a candidate for member-
ship.

Donations to the Museum: Fourteen botanical specimens from
Lower California, by G. W. Dunn. Tusks of Wild Boar from
Santa Rosa Island, from W. G. Blunt. Rock from Choumagin
Islands bearing specimen of Terebratulina septentrionales, dredged
from forty fathoms by W. G. W. Harford. Fragments of an-
cient pottery, and one botanical specimen, from T. J. Butler,
Prescott, Arizona. Insects from La Paz, from Dr. D. E. Hun-
gerford. Hawaiian cotton, presented by C. C. Coleman. Silver
ore from Arizona, by James Riley, Cerbat, Arizona. Two speci-
mens of silver ore from Inyo County, from J. R. Frink. Sixty-
eight specimens of minerals from various localities, from R. H.
Sinton. Thirteen specimens of ore from White Pine, from T.
H. Wells. Four specimens imitation marble on slate, and one
specimen imitation porphyry on slate, from I. T. Milliken, San

180 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Francicso. One specimen Jontinalis antipyritica, from R. K.
Nuttall. Crustacean, from Dr. W. H. Jones, U.S.S. Porlsmouth.
Specimen of Manna found on Eucalyptus on State University
grounds. Mr. Stearns said this was the first discovery of the
kind on any Eucalyptus in California.

Dr. Blake read the following paper:

On Phylloxera.
BY JAMES BLAKE, M. D.

During the last week, I visited one of our extensive vineyards in Sonoma
county, for the purpose of investigating, as far as a few hours would permit,
the Phyloxera question, and as what I observed may be interesting to some,
I will briefly state the results of my observations.

The proprietor of the vineyard was not certain, before I commenced my
investigations, if any of his vines were affected. All he had observed was,
that in separate patches about the vineyard the vines looked sickly. Some of
them had died, and others were evidently dying; but, he stated, as he had
noticed the same sort of thing for years, he did not attribute this to the new
pest, although disease amongst the vines had never shown itself to the same
amount asat present. In exposing the roots of one of the badly diseased
vines, it was found to be covered by the insect. From two or three inches
below the surface to as far down as the roots were traced (four feet), every
crack and crevice in the outside bark of the root, was literally lined by Phyl-
loxera. The vines in which this occurred were evidently in a dying condi-
tion. They had pushed out a few weakly shoots in the spring, which had
not grown more than afew inches, and they had a few aborted bunches of
grapes. They certainly would be dead next year. I noticed, in exposing the
roots of the vine, that there were no superficial roots, at least, living. Some
remains of dead roots were found on digging down, but nothing alive except
the main roots. The lowest roots were not exposed, but from the escape of
sap from the cut surfaces of the roots, it was evident that a certain amount
of absorption was going on, and therefore that a large portion of the smaller
rootlets must be uninjured. The roots of apparently a perfectly healthy vine
were then examined. The plant had made quite a luxurious growth, some of
the shoots being from six to eight feet long, and it had on it about fourteen
pounds of grapes, which appeared to be ripening perfectly. The Phylloxcra
was found on the roots, but in much smaller numbers than in the other vine.
Here they were confined to one or two cracks in the bark, and although pretty
thick in these cracks near the surface, they were only met with in small
patches at a foot under ground. These roots were followed down to a depth
of more than four feet, at which depth a patch of Phylloxera was found,
which consisted of not more than a dozen insects. About six inches above
this was another patch, containing a larger number of individuals, and
about every six or eight inches up the surface patches of the insect were

oS a ee

ACADEMY OF: SCIENCES. 18]

found, the size of the patches becoming larger as they were found nearer the
surface. They were confined exclusively to a single longitudinal crack in the
bark, at least from where the roots divided, about two feet beneath the sur-
face. As before stated, they were found in patches, no insects being seen in
the spaces between the patches. It was evident the crack in the bark of the
root hid offered a route by which the insect was gradually making its way
down on the root. The patches undoubtedly indicated the stages by which
the insect proceeded downwards, one insect from above passing over the in-
tervening space and establishing a new colony, from which pioneers again
started out to descend still lower. From the few insects found in the lowest
patch, it is probable that this portion of the root had but just been attacked,
and that not more than one generation had been born there. On some small
roots that were given off about a foot from the surface, I found but one insect,
and that near the main root. The soil of the vineyard was a gray clay, con-
taining a considerable quantity of sand. It was derived from the disintegra-
tion of voleanic sedimentary rocks, and as it had been well ploughed and
harrowed, it was quite fine and dusty. Under these circumstances, it is
quite certain that the insect would not reach the roots of the vine through
cracks and holes in the ground, as it is stated to do in France. Here there
can be no doubt but that the migrations of the insect took place down the
cracks in the outer bark, which not only afforded it a road, but also enabled
it to introduce its sucker into the softer cambium, from wnich it derives its
nourishment, and which it could not have reached ‘through the whole thick-
ness of the bark.

The fact of the infection of an apparently healthy vine, offers a serious
prospect for the future wine prospects of the State, as it is impossible to say
to what extent the disease already exists. It is probable that its effects only
become manifest after it has already existed on a vine perhaps for years, and
I think it likely that it will be found far more widespread than is now antici-
pated. Ihave, however, taken measures to ascertain this point, and I trust
these remarks may call the attention of our wine-growers to the subject, and
lead them to look for the insect amongst their apparently healthy vines. My
own opinion is, that when a vine has once been attacked by the insect, it is
merely a question of time as to when it will be killed, and the facts above
stated show how hopeless it is to expect to be able to eradicate it when once
itis established. In order to do this, we should have to expose the roots of
the plant, and apply our remedies below the lowest point where the insect
has penetrated. This is simply impossible. The only chance I see for suc-
cessfully meeting the disease is, to endeavor to prevent its attacking vines
that are already healthy, and I think this can most likely be effected in a man-
ner that may not involve too much expense. There are two considerations in
the history of the insect, which lead me to hope that this may be done. In
the first place, I believe that at least in loose, pliable soil, that is kept well
cultivated, the insect can only find access to the roots by crawling down the
cracks in the bark, or in the crevices that are generally found about the root
at the surface of the ground. I think it probable that some application, such
as tar or train oil, that might be distasteful to the insect, might prevent its
crawling down the stem; and surrounding the stem for a fewinches with fine,

182 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

sharp sand, would not leave any cracks by which it could find its way beneath the
surface. Again, the same means would be available for preventing its spreading.
It appears that the way it spreads from one locality to another is, that at
certain seasons of the year some of the insects become possessed of wings.
These then come to the surface and deposit their eggs on the leaves of
the vine, being often carried to some distance by the winds, and by this
means alone it would appear that the diseased area becomes enlarged. Now,
the same plan that would prevent the insect from descending to the roots
would also still more effectually prevent these winged Phylloxeras from com-
ing to the surface and extending the area of the disease.

Unfortunately, notwithstanding the attention that has been given to the
subject in Europe, the natural history of the insect has been but imperfectly
elucidated. Perhaps when we come to know more about it other means may
suggest themselves for controling its progress. Up to the present time no
remedy has been found for it, and if I may be allowed to express an opinion
on the subject, it is because it has been looked for, I believe, in the wrong
direction, by endeavoring to destroy the insect on vines that are already dis-
eased. For reasons above stated, I believe this to be impracticable. The
plan, I think, that will be found available, will be to give up the vines already
attacked, and endeavor to preserve those which are not already infected.

Dr. Blake read the following paper:

On the Reimer Grape.

BY JAMES BLAKE, M. D.

In a communication I read before the Academy, last November, I related
some analyses that I had made of the juice of different varieties of grapes,
more particularly in relation to their fitness for making wine. Amongst the
grapes anaylzed was one called the Reimer, in connection with which the fol-
lowing facts may be interesting: The day after I had received the grapes, the
proprietor of the vineyard called on me, and on looking over the grapes that
his manager had sent me, told me when he saw that there was a sample of
the Reimer amongst them, that there was no necessity for me to analyze that,
as he had given orders to have all the vines of that variety to be destroyed.
As I, however, had already commenced the analysis, I went on with it, and
discovered that this grape was possessed of what I considered the best prop-
erties for wine making. On making this discovery, I requested the owner of
the vineyard to have some wine made from the juice of this grape unmixed
with any other. This was done, and although it is yet rather early to judge
of the wine, yet it certainly, at present, promises to be the best California
made wine I have yet tested, and orders have now been given to preserve
every shoot and sprout of the Reimer for propagation. It is certainly the
most desirable grape for California that I have yet met with. Itisa very free
grower, and I believe even a more prolific bearer than the Mission grape. It
will be seen by the analysis, published in the last volume of the proceedings,

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 183

that it is the variety that contains the most malic acid, and the wine made

‘from it has certainly developed more bouquet than any California made wine

of the same age I have yet tasted, thus supporting the views I then advanced
as to the influence of malic acid in developing the aroma of wine. It would
seem that the vinicultural mind is at last waking up to the value of malic
acid in wine-making, as a comparison of the prices paid for the different
varieties of grape, with the data furnished by my analyses, will show:

Malic acid Price in Napa Val-

per cent. ley per ton.
Zinfindel...... Laon, wale ots clerets Pere ate walacs 0.60 $23.00
FRGISSIUTIOM Sto slecreiise's ee Ane ee valeieved, Slelateler esses 0.57 18.00
INMGSI ORIEN): farteiverecls sacel ee ac Aerts. é 0.11 10.00

Some sixteen years ago I endeavored to call the attention of our vine-growers
to the necessity of propagating the more acid varieties of grape; but until
within the last three or four years the greater part of our vineyards have been
planted with the old Mission grape, undoubtedly the worst wine grape that
can be selected.

Reavrar Mrerine, Ocroper 18rx, 1875.

Second Vice-President in the Chair.
Thirty-five members present.

Donations to the Museum: Three boxes of recent Sea water
Shells, from R. H. Stretch. Photographs of relics from mounds,
by Mr. Putnam. Mr. S. Jennings, through Dr. Gibbons, pre-
sented a pearl taken from a shell found at the Navigator
Islands; also the shells. J. F. Jerome presented specimens cf
the Candle Nut from what the Sandwich Islanders call the
‘*Ku Kui” tree. Black Marble from Alaska, from J. Daniels.
Minerals and Fungus, from J. F. Jerome; also specimen of Holo-
thuria used as food by the Chinese, shark’s fins from China, Or-
chilla from Lower California. R.H. Sinton presented specimens
of Copper ore. OC. C. Parry donated specimen of mountain ma-
hogany. Dr. A. Kellogg presented Trout from Inyo County,
and seventeen specimens of Lichens. James Behrens presented
specimens of radiated pyrites from Prussia.

184 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Mr. C. D. Gibbes described the Candle Nut presented as the
fruit of the Alewrites triloba, a tree of the family Euphorbiace,
grows 20 to 30 feet high; leaves tri-lobed; fruit about two
inches in diameter; inner nut very hard shell, within which the
meat is preserved for years; good to eat, but rather rich. The
oil is easily expressed, and is sent to England for candle making.
As a drying oil it ranks among the best. The Hawaiians string
the kernels of the nuts on slender strips of bamboo and light
them as candles; they burn with a peculiar but pleasant odor.

Dr. G. F. Becker read a paper on ‘‘ Notes on a new feature of
the Comstock Lode.”

Dr. Hermann Behr made some remarks on ‘‘ Phylloxera.”

Henry Edwards read the following paper:

Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No. 15.—Description of a new
species of Catocala, from San Diego.

BY HENRY EDWARDS.

Calocala Augusta. n. sp. Hy. Edw.

Primaries. Ground color, very pale fawn-color, almost whitish. All the
lines, particularly the sub-terminal, strong and distinct. Basal space, rather
large, covered with black irrorations; basal half-line, almost obsolete. T. a
broad on costa, with a double tooth; thence slightly arcuate to a space be-
yond the middle, there forming a deep tooth, and bent again to the internal
margin. This line is deep velvety black, edged anteriorly by a whitish shade.
T. p., with a deep median double tooth, running obliquely from the median
nerve to the internal margin, in a series of four teeth, and near the margin
lost in a brownish shade. Reniform, large, distinct, whitish, edged with
black. Sub-reniform, also, large and white, both with grayish shade posteri-
orly. Sub-terminal line, very strongly marked, with deep but even teeth,
edged anteriorly with gray shade. Sub-terminal spots between the nervules,
well defined, oblong, deep black. Fringes whitish, mottled with brown.

Secondaries. Rosy red, with yellowish tinge. Mesial band, moderate,
almost straight inwardly until it reaches the middle, when it narrows and
terminates about 24 lines from abdominal margin. Marginal band also mod-
erate, with two rather prominent teeth near the anal angle. Apices, broadly
yellow. Emarginations and costa, also, with yellow shade. Fringes, white.
Abdominal margin, clothed with fawn-colored hairs.

Underside. The black bands of primaries are very broad; the white ones
very clear and distinct; the sub-basal one not reaching the interior margin;
and the posterior one much wider on the costa than on the internal margin.

CALIFORNIA A *DEMY OF SCIENCES. VOL. VI.
|

i. See ae

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 185

Secondaries, two-thirds pale yellowish red, the mesial band narrower than

- on the upper side.

Expanse of wings, 3.30 inch.

Locality, San-Diego, Cal. Mrs. Jas. Behrens.

The upper wings of this beautiful species recall the shade of the Euro-
pean C. Fraxini, but they are still paler in color, and with the lines even
more distinctly marked. Its nearest ally is C. Luciana, Hy. Edw., from Col-
orado, but it differs from that species by its paler gray color, by the reniform
and sub-reniform being whitish instead of black, by the lines being more
deeply and regularly toothed, and by the extreme distinctness of the sub-
terminal line. The color of the secondaries have also a more rosy tint than
those of Luciana. :

For this interesting addition to our insect fauna, we are indebted to Mrs.
James Behrens, who has frequently added great rarities to her husband’s col-
lection, and to whom, through the medium of her given name, I have great
delight in dedicating it. Mrs. Behrens took two specimens of this charming
insect in August last, in the neighborhood of San Diego.

Mr. Stearns read the following paper:

On the Vitality of Certain Land Mollusks.
BY ROBT. E. C. STEARNS.

I submit for the inspection of the Academy a living specimen of Bulimus
pallidior, Sby., one of nine given to me by Prof. Geo. Davidson, who collected
them at San José del Cabo, Lower California, in March, 1873.

These snails were kept in a box undisturbed until June 23d, 1875, when I
took them out, and, after examination, placed them in a glass jar with some
chick-weed and other tender vegetable food, anda small quantity of tepid
water, so as to make a warm humid atmosphere. This hospitable treatment
induced them to wake up and move about after their long fast and sleep of
two years, two months and sixteen days. Subsequently all died but this, which
seems to be in pretty good health, though not very active.

It may be remembered that I mentioned before the Academy at a meeting
in March, 1867, an instance of vitality in a snail (Helix Veatchiz) from Cerros
Island, even more remarkable, the latter having lived without food from 1859,
the year when it was collected, to March, 1865, a period of six years.

The famous specimen in the British Museum which is cited in the books,
Helix desertorum, had lived within a few days of four years, fastened to a tab-
let in one of the cases, when discovered to be alive.

Helix desertorum, as the specific name implies, is found in arid and sterile
areas, in the continents of Africa and Asia, and has, as will be perceived, a
wide distribution. From the former continent, I have specimens from Egypt,
and it also ranges through Arabia in the latter.

The Bulimus from the main-land of the peninsula of Lower California, and

Proc. Can. AcaD. Scor., Vou. VI.—13.

‘
x
;
s

CALIFORNIA A

“DEMY OF SCIENCES.

Il.

1. Bulimus pailidior, Sby.
2. Helix Veatchii, Newe.

| Loaned by Smi t¢hgonian Institution. ees
VITALITY OF LAND MOLLUSKS. (STEARNS,)

(TO FACE PAGE 185.)

186 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Helix Veatchii from Cerros or Cedros Island, off the coast on the ocean side
of the same, come from within the same physical environment, being com-
paratively a limited distance apart.

The Helix belongs to an interesting and peculiar group, probably varieties
of one species, which includes, at present, the following names: (1) Helix areo-
lata, Sby., (2) H. Veitchit, Newc., (3) H. pandore, Fbs., and (4) H. levis, Pfr.
Other forms geographically approximate may hereafter, on further investiga-
tion, be referred to the same lineage.

Of the above, (1) H. areolata was the first described, or I should say that this
appears by the date to be the first name bestowed upon any member of the
group. This species has been quoted from Oregon, and (4) H. levis, from the
Columbia River, in both cases erroneously. The figures in ‘‘ Land and Fresh
Water Shells of North America,’’* p. 177, are too elevated and globose for
the typical areolata, but the larger figures faithfully represent H. Veatchit.
Elevation and rotundity are insular characteristics in this group, and areolata
is comparatively depressed. It is found in considerable numbers on the up-
lands around Magdalena Bay, which is on the outer or ocean shore of the
peninsula, in latitude about 24° 40’ N.

Bulimus pallidior, which is pretty generally distributed through Lower Cali-
fornia, from Cape St. Lucas northerly, has also erroneously been credited to
San Diego in California proper. It is arboreal in its habits, at least during
the winter season, and frequents the Copaiva trees. It has been said to in-
habit South America, which is probably incorrect, and the locality ‘‘San Juan,’’
mentioned in ‘‘L. and F. W. Shells,’’ on p. 195, where a good figure of this
species may be seen, should be San Juanico, which is on the east side of the
peninsula, in latitude about 27° N.

The great importance of particularity in habitat will be at once perceived
when I state that there are no less than three other localities on the west coast
of America, north of the place cited, all of which are referred to in various
scientific works which have come under my observation, as ‘‘ San Juan,’’ and
there are perhaps as many more ‘‘ San Juan’s”’ south of that especially quoted
herein, on the westerly coast of America, in the Central and South American
States.

Attention is directed to the fact that the three species herein mentioned as
exhibiting extraordinary vitality, belong to geographical areas, which receive
only minimum rainfall, or which are, in simple language, nearly rainless
regions.

Within such areas vegetation is exceedingly limited even in favorable sea-
sons, and the presence and growth of the annual plants is, of course, depend-
ent upon the rainfall; this last occurring infrequently makes the food supply
of land mollusks and other phytophagous or vegetable-eating animals exceed-
ingly precarious. |

It is highly probable that a careful investigation in this direction will lead
us to the conclusion that the land mollusks which inhabit arid areas have,
through selection, adaptation and evolution, become especially fitted for the

*Smithsonian Misc. Coll., No. 194.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 187

contingencies of their habitat, and possess a greater degree of vitality or abil-
ity to live without food than related forms in what may be considered more
favorable regions, and through and by reason of their long sleep or hiberna-
tion, more properly estivation, with its inactivity and consequent immunity from
any waste or exhaustion of vital strength, are enabled to maintain their hold
upon life when animals more highly organized would inevitably perish; and
we are furnished with an illustration, in the instances cited, how nature works
compensatively, when we institute a comparison with the opposite condition
of activity, and the food required to sustain it.

Mr. Stearns called the attention of the Academy to certain
fossil forms of the genus Scalaria, belonging to the sub-genus
Opalia, discovered by Mr. Hemphill near San Diego.

Reevtar Merertine, Novemper 1st, 1875.

Dr. Stout was called to the Chair in the absence of President
and Vice-Presidents.

Twenty-eight members present.

Messrs. Charles W. Banks and G. F. Becker were elected res-
ident members.

Donations to the Museum: From W. E. Burleigh from Island
of St. George, Alaska, one full-grown male fur seal, one full-
grown female fur seal, one foetus (nearly full grown) of fur seal,
one young sea lion two months old, head of walrus two years old.
The fur seal are carefully collected specimens, complete and
suitable for preservation. |

My. Filhol was introduced by the Chairman and made a few
remarks.

Dr. Gibbons made some verbal remarks on the difference in
the rainstorms here and in the Eastern States.

Dr. Parry read a short paper in relation to botanical subjects
in California.

188 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Reeutar Meetinc, NovemsBer 15th, 1875.

Second Vice-President in the Chair.

Twenty members present.
Louis Nusbaumer was nominated for membership.

Donations to the Museum: A box of minerals containing 45
specimens, from Dr. E. 8. Holden, Stockton. Specimen of Co-
lymbres, presented through Dr. Harkness. Two birds from Nay-
igator Islands, presented through Dr. Gibbons. Specimen of
Cebidichthys crista galli? Ayres, from Captain Lawson, U. 8S.
Coast Survey. Five specimens of fish from the lower waters of
Kern River, from J. R. Scupham. Silicitied wood from Sonoma
County, by G. H. Saunders.

S. C. Hastings read a letter from Professor J. D. Whitney rel-
ative to the ‘‘ Botany of California,” to the effect that the work
was nearly completed and ready for publication.

J. R. Scupham made some verbal remarks on the Toredo, pre-
senting also a specimen of wood showing a curious instance
where one of the rotifers had bored into the hole of its neighbor,
the first instance where such an occurrence had been noticed.

A verbal discussion on the subject of Phylloxera was partici-
pated in by Dr. Behr, Dr. Blake, Dr. Kellogg and §. C. Hast-
ings.

Reeutar Meerine, Decemper 6th, 1875.
Second Vice-President in the Chair.
Thirty-five members.

T. W. Greene and Dr. Murphy were proposed for membership.

Donations to the Museum: Twenty-six specimens of Native
Woods, presented by Mr. Joseph H. Clarke, Cahto, Mendocino
County. Native Fishes, W. N. Lockington. Three specimens

aS ee

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 189

of Fish and nine specimens of Crustaceans from Captain M.
Turner. Pinus aristata, Dr. A. Kellogg. Acorns and branch of
Quercus fulvescens, George W. Dunn. Specimen of Artemia
Utahensis, from Dr. Harkness. Two Crustaceans and thirty-two
specimens of Myriapoda, from Henry Edwards.

Dr. Kellogg explained that the donation of woods from Mr.
Clarke was very valuable, all the specimens being in fine order
and carefully prepared. <A vote of thanks was passed to Mr.
Clarke.

Dr. Harkness exhibited a map presented by General Stone,
through Governor Purdy. The map shows the work done by
American Engineers in Africa for the Egyptian Government, in
the course of a survey.

Mr. W. N. Lockington read a description of the fish presented
at the previous meeting.

Mr. Lockington also read a paper on Landscape Gardening,
giving a list of the varieties of plants and shrubs adapted to Cal-
ifornia gardens, and containing suggestions as to the proper lay-
ing out of grounds.

Dr. J. G. Cooper presented the following:

New Facts relating to Californian Ornithology—No. 1.
BY J. G. COOPER, M. D.

The publication of the volume on Land Birds in the series of Reports of
the Geological Survey of California brought down the history of that class
of animals, for the most part, to 1870, although, having been written five
years previously, many additional facts had accumulated, which could not
be introduced into it, as only stereotyped proof-sheets were sent to me for
correction. Some of these facts have been published by me in our Proceedings
for 1868, Vol. IV, p. 3, as ‘‘ Some recent additions to the Fauna of California,”’
and more or less contributed to the ‘‘ American Naturalist,’’ or the following
more recent works. The present remarks are intended to include only such
later items as haye never been published, or such opinions as differ from
those of later authors. The following are the chief works relating to this
subject that have appeared since 1865:

Birds of Ft. Whipple, Arizona, or Prodrome of Ornithology of Arizona
Territory. By E. Coues, A. M., M.D., U.S.A. From Proc. Phila. Acad.
Nat. Sciences, Jan. 1868.

The New and heretofore Unfigured Birds of North America. By D. G.
Elliott. New York, 1869. Folio.

List of Birds of Alaska, with biographical notes. By Wm. H. Dall and H.
Bannister. From the Proc. Chicago Acad. of Sciences, 1869, 4to. Also Mr.
Dall’s later articles in our Proceedings, on Alaskan birds.

190 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

A History of North American Birds, by S. F. ‘Baird, T. M. Brewer, and
R. Ridgway, Land Birds, in 3 vols., small 4to. Boston, 1874.

Birds of Western and Northwestern Mexico, from Collections of Col. A. J.
Grayson, Capt. J. Xantus, and F. Bischoff. By G.N. Lawrence. From
Memoirs of the Bost. Soc. of Nat. Hist., 1874. 4to.

Birds of the Northwest (the region of the Missouri R.) By E. Coues,
M.D., U.S. A. Washington, 1874. 8vo.

Report on Ornithological Specimens collected in the Years 1871, 1872, and
1873, in Nevada, Utah, and Arizona. By Dr. H.C. Yarrow, H. W. Hen-
shaw, and F. Bischoff. Washington, 1874. 8vo.

For convenience of reference, I give the pages of Ornithology of Califor-
nia, Vol. I, where the species are described.

Turpus nanus—The Dwarf Thrush, page 4. The notes given by me in the
lower five lines of this page belong properly to the next species, as it is
scarcely probable that any of this remain in the lower country of California,
or even in the mountains in summer, unless above an elevation of 8,000 ft., as
does its Rocky Mountain representative, var. Auduboni Baird. The song
of that, and of the eastern race, var. ‘‘ Pallassi’’ Cab., being described as
resembling that of the Wood Thrush (7. mustelinus), with which I am fa-
miliar, Iam sure that I never heard it in the Sierra Nevada up to 8,000 ft.
alt., nor in the forests of Washington Territory, and that of var. nanus can-
not be very different.*

It is the winter thrush of California, common from September to May.

As pointed out by me in the Amer. Naturalist, Jan. 1875, the name nanus
has priority over Pallassi, but that of guttatus Pallas, 1811, will very probably
become the specific appellation, being founded on a specimen from Kodiak,
where this only is found. The description, however, is as applicable to young
of Myiadestes Townsendii, and it was called a ‘‘ Muscicapa.’’ Bonaparte, in
Comptes Rendus, 1854, thinks it is ‘‘very certainly the 7. Swainsoni, but
may not be the JT’. Pallassi of Cabanis.’’ The size, however, does not agree
with either of them, and perhaps for this reason Cabanis substituted Pallasst
(founded on a Cuban specimen) for his 7’. guttatus, 1844, founded on Pallas’s
bird. The African 7’. guttatus Vigors, need cause no confusion, being doubt-
less a later named species.

T. usruLatus—Oregon Thrush, p. 5. This name is also prior to those of
its eastern representatives. Townsend and Audubon confounded it with
T. fuscescens (‘‘Wilsont’’), which opinion was formerly endorsed by J. A.
Allen; while Coues in 1872, and later authors, make it a variety of ‘7’. Swain-
soni”? Cab. This, besides being named later, was described as from Siberia,

* The song described by Ridgway as of 7. ustulatus in the Sierra Nevada, and like that of
the Wood Thrush, was more probably that of TZ. nanus.

+ 7. Aonalaschka Gmel answers still better to the young of 7. nanus, and could scarcely
be a fringilline bird, as suggested by Baird, for Gmelin described the three spotted spar-
rows from there as “ Fringilla,” &c. Melospiza Lincolnii could scarcely be confounded
with it. See farther on, under Passerculus Sandwichensis.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 191

and a comparison of types Seems needed to establish its identity. As, however,
it is reported as straggling to Central Europe (as well as ‘‘Pallassv’’) it might
much more easily reach Siberia from Alaska, where it appears to go farther
north than var. ustulatus. The claim of ‘‘ 7’. brunneus’’ Boddeert, 1783, as
being of this species, seems worthy of further examination.

I was misled in giving 7’. nanus as the common Summer Thrush of Califor-
nia, both by its having been given by all previous authors as the only small
brown thrush found in the State (ustulatus being limited to the north), and by
Heermann’s positive assertion that it breeds in the oak groves near San Fran-
cisco, where I am now satisfied that only ustulatus spends the summer. I have
since found the latter breeding as far south as lat. 35° at least, and probably
to lat. 33°, There they are more olive than at the Columbia, approaching var.
** Swainsoni,’? and are also smaller,-as might be expected. This southern
residence suggests that the Mississippi valley summer thrush of Audubon,
and Wilson’s Georgia birds, with similar nest and eggs, are the var. ‘‘ Swain-
soni,’’ these authors not recognizing its distinctness from var. ‘‘ Pallassi.’’

Our bird does not reach California from the south before April 15th, and
leaves during September, thus supplementing the winter residence of 7’. nanus
so fully, that they are easily mistaken for one species, more noisy and con-
spicuous in summer, their upper plumage being nearly the same in California.*

* The following measurements taken by me from fresh birds now preserved in the
Smithsonian Institution, the State Museum of California, and my own collection, show
that there is such a gradation in size between specimens of the two species collected in
diferent latitudes, that no difference is noticeable in living birds at gunshot distance. The
older specimens are recorded in P. R. Rep. IX, 213, 215, etc.

SPECIES. Looaurry. DatTE. Sex. | LENGTH.) EXTENT.| WING. Cat. No.

eet —— iso Re A eS i ee

T. ustulatus|Wash. Terr..... May 31, 1854) + a? 8.00 12.25 Sat? SEL, SL TL vs.)

« G See es nsieis Spat Ge p? 7.25 11.75, se? Ags P later

ce Saticoy, Cal... Sept. 7, 1873 fof 7.00 12).25 4.15 |J.G.C.1559.

we “s « ...-|May 6, 1874] <Y! TOOK aM 11. 40m eeSaToy liu’ “@

T.nanus |St. Clara, Cal... INov.18, 1855 ate 7.00 10.50 3.30? |S. 1. 4483....

se ce flocs eas UY be ERED 2 6.50 9.25 Cee 4 hs! O94 ore

Me Ft. Mojave, Cal.' Jan. 25, 1861 rot 6 50 10.50 8.35 |J.G.C. 64..

« Saticoy, Cal... - Nov. 7, 1873} 9 6.50 | 10.40 | 3.35 sei teeter.

+ The sex of two is surmised on difference of size. The wings were not measured in
these two. The wing of all the 8.I. birdsis given as above from Baird’s average.

+ The two first were young of the year.

It appears from Mr. Henshaw’s measurements, in his report for 1873, that Arizona speci-

mens of 7. nanus average smaller, and he remarks on the contrast in size between them
and var. Audubonit, as seen in Colorado. much larger than 7. ustulatus.

192 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Although the nest and eggs of this variety may have led to its correct
affiliation with ‘‘Swainsonii,’’ they are not always reliable in this genus, if Dr.
Coues is right in stating that 7. fuscescens sometimes lays spotted eggs, and
builds either on the ground, in bushes, or in trees! (Birds of the Northwest,
1874). If afew more of the best marked distinctions become broken down
by future observations, we may yet find that all the six races now divided into
two or three species must be combined in one (a ‘‘ 7. parvus Seligmann,
1775”’?).

T. Aticrm? Baird—Alice’s Thrush—In a note given by me in the ‘‘ Nat.
Hist. of Wash. Terr.,’’ 1860, Zool. p. 171, I stated that I had seen two
thrushes there in December and March, quite unlike ustulatus, which I then
knew to be a summer visitor only. I compared them to Wilson’s plate of
* solitarius ’’ (var. Swainsoni ?), and Swainson’s of ‘‘ minor”? (var. Pallassi ?),
but neither is at all likely to winter so far north. ‘‘ Their color was a very
dark brown, without a tint of olive, and the breast more thickly marked with
spots of the same color, large and round.’’ This agrees so nearly with Baird’s
description of the winter plumage of Alicie (then unknown), that they may
be considered either to have been Alaskan specimens of that bird (not since
seen in the U. S. in winter), or stragglers from Asia of a foreign species.

HaRPORHYNCHUS REDIVIVUS—California Thrasher—p. 16. Eggs laid in a
nest at Saticoy, Ventura Co., May 26th, hatched in 13 days. The length
given in the text referred to, as 1.10, should be 1.20. The iris, colored yel-
low in many copies of the Cal. Ornith., is really brown, as in all the Califor™
nian species. i

POLIOPTILA CHRULEA—Blue-Gray Flycatcher—p. 35. Can this be the ‘‘ Syl-
vicola cerulea,’’ quoted by Townsend and Audubon from the Columbia River?
That species is not now found west of long. 100°, while the above migrates
north as far as the southern branches of the Columbia at least.

LopHOPHANES INoRNATUS—Plain Crested Titmouse—p. 42. A curious rela-
tionship to Chamea is shown in the tail-feathers of this species, which, under
oblique light, show many dark bars above, as in that bird. The same char-
acter has recently been ascertained in Melospiza, and is quite apparent in
some of var. Heermanni : also in species of Peucea.

SALPINCTES OBSOLETUS—Rock-Wren—p. 64. The eggs described were so
much more reddish than authentic examples from farther south described by
others, that they may have belonged to the western House-Wren.

THRYOTHORUS SPILURUS—-Bewick’s Wren—p. 69. The nest described was
so different from that of 7. Bewickii, that I was induced to consider the bird
a distinct species; but as I find that northward it builds in hollow trees,
houses, etc., I must suppose that it merely took some other bird’s old nest,
for want of such accommodations.

TROGLODYTES (DON, var.) PARKMANNI—Western House-Wren—p. 71. The
references to ‘‘ 7’. Americanus Aud.’’ as from Oregon, by Audubon, Gambel,
and Nuttall, were no doubt based on this variety, which is of about the same
size, and was not distinguished until five years years later. Gambel, in re-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 193

naming it 7’. sylvestris, had reference apparently to the name ‘‘ Wood-Wren,”’
given by Audubon to ‘“‘ 7’. Americamus.’”’ The latter author and Nuttall both
considered it nearest to 7’. hyemalis, instead of 7. edon, from which confusion
resulted; and Dr. Heermann, in quoting T. Americanus from California, as
well as J. edon, seems to have meant the American race of the ‘‘ European
Wren” (7. Europeus Cuv.), which is T. hyemalis. I have seen the latter
recently just north of S. F. Bay, near the sea-level, in Sept., and down to
lat. 35° from Nov. to March.

HELMINTHOPHAGA CELATA—Orange-crowned Warbler—p. 83—(var. lutescens
Ridgw.). The nest and eggs described by Audubon, as quoted by me, must
have belonged to some other bird. On May 25th, 1874, I found a nest near
Haywood, Alameda Co., built on the ground among dead leaves, on a steep
slope in the woods, very similar to that of the eastern-variety found by Ken-
nicott, and I shot the female for identification. The three eggs, probably a
second brood, are clear white, densely spotted with brownish-red specks;
size 0.50 by 0.60 inch. They were partly hatched, and probably a second
brood.

Drenpraca AupuBoNtI—Audubon’s Warbler—p. 88. This species, having
the greatest adaptability to different climates and foods, far outnumbers all
the others. In winter I have seen them pecking at dough and other food
thrown out of doors, besides fruit-skins, and green herbage.

DeENDR@CA CoRONATA—Yellow-crowned Warbler—p. 89. A female of this
species was killed in Oakland, Cal., in the winter of 1872-3, and I shot a very
perfect male at Haywood, April 10th, 1875. As they winter as far north as
New York, those of this coast may spend that season chiefly north of the U.
S., or in the mountains. The nest and eggs, as quoted from Audubon’s de-
scription, are considered by Dr. Brewer as belonging to some other bird—
(See N. A. Birds, I. 228).

Drnpraca TowNsENDI—Townsend’s Warbler—p. 91. I saw one of this
species at Haywood as early as Sept. 12th, 1875, in company with several of
our summer warblers; so that it is probable that some of the species may
breed not very far to the north. I saw no more until Dec. 5th.

GEOTHLYPIS TRICHAS—Yellow-Throat—p. 95. As I suspected, this species
winters in great numbers in California, between lats 38° and 35°. I found a
nest near Saticoy, Ventura Co., containing young on Apr. 22d, nearly as ear-
ly as I before recorded them as migrating near San Diego. I have seen none
in summer in the windy region around 8S. F. Bay, though a few winter there.

Myropi10ctEs PUsILLUS—Black-capped Warbler—p. 101—(var. pzleolatus Pax-
Las). Although described by Baird in N. A. Birds, I. 319, as having a short-
er wing and tail than the eastern var., the measurements and remarks in Pa-
cific R. R. Rep. (Birds IX, p. 293) indicate the contrary, as well as larger
size, according to the usual rule in west coast varieties.

As suggested by me, the arrival of this species in California is usually much
earlier than observed in 1862, as I found them in 1873 near Saticoy, lat. 359,
on March 18th, the males migrating north in large numbers, and singing

194 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

much like D. estiva. I no doubt mistook them for that species at Puget
Sound in 1854, reaching there by Apr. 10th, as mentioned in Zodél. of Wash.
,Terr., p. 182. I now find that they are a month earlier than that bird in Cali-
fornia. .

In May, 1875, I found a nest of this species built about four feet from
the ground in a thicket of nettles at Haywood, Alameda Co. It was neatly
formed of vegetable fibres and grass-leaves, 344 inches wide, 24% high, the in-
side 214 wide and 1144 deep. The three eggs measure 0.68 by 0.52 in., a little
larger than those described by Dr. Brewer, and are white, with a scattered
ring of brown specks near the large end. As this bird breeds so far north,
and to the summits of the highest mountains where wooded, its frequency in
so warm a locality in summer is surprising ; but in 1873 I saw them feeding
young at Saticoy, lat. 35°, which is, however, less inland and about as cool.
The prevalence of the sea-breeze in summer makes the climate of the coast
border within fifteen miles very much like that of the mountain summits at
that season.

VIREOSYLVIA GILVA—Warbling Vireo—p. 116, (var. Swainsoni Baird). This
bird seems to arrive much earlier than noticed in former years, as I found
them at Haywood, Alameda County, near lat. 38°, by March 31st, 1875,
while the date noticed ‘in 1862 at San Diego, was April 10th, andeat Santa
Cruz, May 9th. Like several other birds, those that go inland appear to
come earlier than those traveling along the coast; or, ‘from being more com-
mon, their first arrival is more easily observed.

AMPELIS GARRULUS—Arctic Wax Wing—p. 127. The locality of my speci-
men, although doubted by some recent authors, may be verified by inspection
of the original in the University of California, where it has been for a long
time comparable with native specimens of A. cedrorum.

PinIcoLa CANADENSIS—Pine Grosbeak-—p. 151. A specimen which I shot
in August, 1870, near the summit of the Pacific R. R. Pass, over the Sierra
Nevada, was of a fine orange-red color, but beginning to moult. This plum-
age, which is not described by Baird, is stated by Nuttall to be the most adult
condition of the species, the carmine-red characterizing younger birds. It
may, however, be a tading change, like the yellow seen in caged birds of some
other red species.

CHRYSOMITRIS TRISTIS—American Goldfinch—p. 167. The size of the eggs
given by me is so much smaller than of Eastern specimens, that Dr. Brewer
seems to think it wrong. I have, however, found them at Haywood even
smaller, measuring only 0.60 by 0.50 inch, while I did not find either of the
other species at Santa Cruz. Mr. W. A. Cooper thinks, however, that
C. Lawrenciti may breed there. At Saticoy I found eggs by April 25th, and
at Haywood saw fledged young fed by the male on June 15th, so that they
are not always so late in building on this coast as on the eastern. The eggs
vary, as elsewhere, from white to pale bluish. This and the two next are
called here, ‘‘ Wild Canaries.”’

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 195

C. psanrrra—-Arkansas Goldfinch—p. 168. This also, builds plentifully
about Haywood, and the nests are not distinguishable, except in smaller size,
from those of C. tristis, but built much earlier. Some were begun by March
Ist, but finished slowly, only being worked upon when the day was warm.
One was built in a rose-bush, not over four feet from the ground and close to
the path, where we often looked at the female sitting on four eggs, which
hatched in 12 days. The eggs here differ somuch from those of C. tristis, that
I doubt whether Dr. Brewer ever saw authentic specimens, they being much
more bluish and less pointed in several nests which I compared, though one
set was nearly white. I saw the first fledged young being fed by the parents,
as early as April 30th. The males often breed in the same dull plumage as
the females, and are all much less brightly colored in summer than in winter.
Some of them at that season look almost black enough above for var. Arizone.
Their flight is not undulating, like that of C. tristis, but with a weak flutter-
ing motion of the wings: nor do they have a flying song, like that species.
In March and April, these birds join with most of the other smaller birds in
feeding on the caterpillars, which then swarm so thickly on the oaks as to de-
stroy every one of the first growth of leaves. Though a new growth succeeds,
there are some trees kept bare the whole summer, or stripped by successive .
broods of caterpillars.

C. Lawrenctr—Lawrence’s Goldfinch—p. 171. I have recently seen this
species near San Francisco in winter very rarely, and I did not see any at Santa
Cruz or Monterey even in summer. They reach S. F. Bay in large numbers
after March 20th,’and scatter through the oak-groves in pairs, building early
in April, chiefly in low branches of the live-oaks. Recently, some have be-
gun to build in gardens, chiefly in cypress and other evergreen trees, where I
found several nests. The eggs I find more elongated than those of C. psaltria,
being 0.65 by 0.48 inch, and pure white. They were hatched in about 12 days,
and in 12 more the young left the nest, following the parents with the same
ery of ‘‘she-veet ’’ as those of C. tristis, but as with C. psaltria, the flight of
adults is without ery or undulations.

C. Prnus—Pine Goldfinch—p. 172. In 1874, I found that this bird is a
summer resident in the cool foggy pine woods near Monterey, probably the
only point suited for it at that season south of lat. 40° on this coast. I saw
them there, building a rest in a high pine, in June. They come about San
Francisco and Santa Cruz in small numbers in winter, and I shot one at
Haywood as late as April 10th, 1875, where a few were with other species feed-
ing on the caterpillars which then swarmed on the oaks. There are no con-
iferous forests about this place to attract them. They fly so much like C.
tristis as to be easily mistaken for them in winter, but the only species that
has the peculiar sharp note like ‘‘svéer”’ uttered by this species, is C. Law-
rencii, which is also much hoarser in its song than the others.

PasseRcunus SanpwicHensis—Alaska Sparrow—p. 180. Although late au-
thors have made this a variety of P. savanna, it must claim the typical place
by right of priority, while ‘‘ Emberiza arctica’? Latham 1790, may prove
to be founded on the more eastern ‘‘ P, princeps’’ Maynard 1874. ‘“‘E.

—

196 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

chrysops’’ Pallas 1811, is also preferable to savanna Wilson, who seems to
have given the name by mistake for the doubtful ‘‘ £. savanarum”’ of Gmelin.
If Sandwichensis is retained, there can be little doubt as to adopting also
Gmelin’s ‘‘Turdus Aonalaschke ’’ founded on the ‘‘ Aonalaska thrush,’’ as this
was called the ‘‘Sandwich or Aonalaska Bunting.’? The chances for confu-
sion to have arisen in Gmelin’s classification, are more than two to one in
this case of the Bunting, above those likely to occur in his naming a bird
Turdus. (See T. nanus).

P. (S. var.) auaupINus—Skylark Sparrow—p. 181. The original type of
this variety was from ‘‘ California’’ (probably Bodega), and therefore repre-
sents the race so near var. savanna, which was first identified with it by Prof.
Baird, and not the more inland, paler and smaller race, which he has so named
in his latest work. As, however, all the races are admitted to intergrade
together, it is perhaps not improper to give the name to the extreme variety,
and to consider the California birds as linking it with var. anthinus, which
seems to be his latest opinion. The measurements I gave from fresh speci-
mens, as well as the new figures of heads given by him in N. A. Birds, show
how uncertain are characters based on size to distinzuish even the local races.

P. (S. var.) aNtHINus—Titlark Sparrow—p. 183. Though Bonaparte’s type
was said to be from Kodiak I., Alaska, Prof. Baird has only recognized one
young bird ‘‘of var. Sandwichensis approaching var. anthinus,’’ from there,
and none from the main-land of Alaska, referring all to var. alaudinus, including
Dall’s ‘‘P. savanna,’’ which merely goes to show that the original type was
not a very extreme form.

In 1872-3, in Ventura Co., I again observed the limitation of this variety to
the salt marshes while an upland race frequented the dry, grassy hills along
the cool sea beach, but not six miles inland, in summer. I found no nests,
but shot a young bird newly fledged, of the latter variety, in July, which
resembled closely the young of var. savanna described by Baird in his last
work.

P. rostratus—Long-billed Sparrow—p. 184. The approach of this species
to the genus Ammodromus, recognized by Cassin and confirmed by its habits,
shows that Passerculus (as well as Coturniculus and Centronyx) is scarcely more
than a division of that genus, though ‘‘ A. Samuelis,”’ p. 191, is now ad-
mitted to be a Melospiza. P. rostratus represents A. maritimus on this coast,
while P.anthinus is the analogue of A. caudacutus. The young is thickly
spotted on the breast like that of A. maritimus, and like the more southern
variety guttatus. On May 26th, 1862, Ifound a nest among sand-hills close
to the beach at San Pedro, built like that of P. savanna, and containing two
eggs, whitish, thickly speckled nearly all over with brown. Though I did
not see the bird, there was no other in the vicinity that was likely to have
owned them except this species. Mr. Dunn has since found a nest at San
Diego, two feet up in Saltcornia, and with three such eggs, measuring 0.80 by
0.60.

CHONDESTES GRAMMACA—Lark Finch—p. 193. A few of this species winter

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 197

near San Francisco, where I saw them in the middle of January, 1875. The
occurrence of this species farther east than formerly, some even to the
Atlantic coast, seems to show that the denudation of the greater part of the
Appalachian forests, is producing the effect of making that country so much
better suited to the habits of birds of the great western plains, that they are
gradually moving eastward. This migration, commenced by the Cliff Swal-
low in 1811, is now noticed in the Yellow-headed and Brewer’s Blackbirds,
the Magpie, Arkansas Flycatcher, and several others more fond of the
forests, most of which could not have been overlooked by the old observers.

GuUIRACA C@RULEA—Blue Grosbeak—p. 230. In 1873, I saw the males of
this species migrating north in small parties through Ventura Co. on April
17th, so that they come earlier along the coast than at Ft. Mojave. On the
same day the allied Cyanospiza was migrating, as usual, in flocks, together
with Dendreca estiva. In 1875, the two latter reached Haywood, Alameda
Co., April 20th; but the Grosbeak seeks a more inland route toward the north.
The arrival of most spring birds is varied a week or two by the winds and
weather, as a few warm days and south wind always bring them in large
flocks, when the contrary conditions either delay them all, or make them
arrive in scattered order. The prevalence of fogs for 20 miles inland during
many nights of spring also changes the route of some or all the migrants.

AGELEUS TRICOLOR—Red and White-shouldered Blackbird—p. 265. The
eggs of this bird, instead of being like those of Brewer’s Blackbird, as I
quoted from Dr. Heermann, are almost undistinguishable from those of the
other Redwings. Dr. Brewer calls them deeper blue; but many found by me
at Saticoy, Ventura Co., are rather pale green, with few dark brown blotches
and lines near the large end. The nest differs more, being of straws, stems,
and leaves, twisted around several upright stems of nettles, about four feet
from the ground, and in the forks of the plants. They are about 7 inches
high, 5 wide, inside 3 by 3, with a fine grass lining. Hundreds built in one
netile thicket, around a marshy spot, but none in the cat-tails or rushes near
by. The nettles were a protection from raccoons, etc.

Corvus (AMERICANUS var.) CAURINUS—Western Crow—p. 285. Prof. Baird
still insists on the specific distinctness of this form, as found from the Columbia
River to Sitka, returning all Californian specimens to C. Americanus. The
differences now first given by him are, ‘‘ tarsus shorter than the bill, 1st quill
longer than 10th, gloss deeper,’’ besides the smaller size. But the plates in
his former work, and the tables given with them, do not show such a constant
difference in bill and tarsus as ‘‘ culmen, 1.95; tarsus, 1.70,’ nor do they show
any marked disproportion in the wings or tarsi of the two ‘“‘ species.” The
var. Floridanus is quite as peculiar in having larger bill and tarsus, but many
intermediate specimens, some of which I myself collected at Ft. Dallas,
Fla., connect it with Americanus.

In the same way the California birds connect the var. caurinus with Ameri-
canus. In his former work, Prof. Baird himself mentions the less graduated
tail of Californian skins, and includes in caurinus several northern specimens
of intermediate sizes.

198 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Finally, the eggs show a regular gradation between the smallest northwestern
and largest Floridan. The most peculiar habit of northwestern birds is that
mentioned by J. K. Lord, in the close resemblance of their nests to those of
the magpie. But as they do not build such nests near the mouth of the
Columbia where no magpies are found, I have no doubt that those he saw
thus used had been stolen from the magpies by the stronger crows.

Proa? (Proa var.) Nutratti—Yellow-billed Magpie—p. 295. This variety or
race of the cireumboreal Coracias Pica Linn. 1735, is not common near Mon-
terey, as was stated on authority of Dr. Canfield, as I saw only two or three
pairs within six miles, and a native of the place told me he had not seen so
many before in thirty years. They are, however, great wanderers, like the
other races, and may reside a few years at a place which they afterwards desert
for a longer or shorter period. I have been told that they were formerly
numerous in places where none are now found, and in 1855 I found them
common twenty miles nearer San Francisco, to the south, than they were in
1873, when I saw none nearer that city than sixty miles in any direction.

One reasou may be the reckless scattering of poisoned grain by the farmers
to destroy squirrels, which has also destroyed the quails and numerous small
birds, besides driving off or killing the crows and jays. But, on the other
hand, in 1860 I found the var. hudsonica numerous at Ft. Vancouver, Columbia
River, where I saw none in 1853-4, but where Townsend and Nuttall saw a
few also in 1834. The high cold winds are sufficient cause for their permanent
absence from near S. F. Bay, where several other birds are equally absent for
the same reason, especially those of non-migratory habits.

Cyanura SreLuert--Steller’s Jay—p. 298—(var. frontatis Ridgw. 1874). I
found a few of these birds breeding in the dense pine woods at Monterey in
1874, and shot a young bird of the year in July, 1875, about 25 miles east of
San Francisco, which had probably been raised in the redwoods at least 12
miles distant.

ConToPus BOREALIS—Olive-sided Flycatcher—p. 323. The statement by
myself that this bird is ‘“ resident ’’ north of Monterey is not confirmed by
late observations, though I have never seen any migrating through the south-
ern part of California, which ought to be as well suited for them in winter as
Texas. If they fly from one pine-clad range to another when migrating, with-
out stopping on the way, their journeys must be long and far to the eastward.

Contopus Ricuarpsonu—-Short-legged Flycatcher—p. 325. Although most
late authors rank this as a western race of C. virens, they do not mention in-
termediate specimens, and the differences, from their own accounts, appear
quite marked. This has the wings longer and more pointed, feet larger and
stouter, darker back, no light space on breast, more forked tail, and different
notes and habits. Both breed in Texas and both winter in Central America,
apparently without mixing. The two species are as different as C. borealis
and C. pertinax. The western bird, though ranging to Wisconsin, can scarce-
ly be supposed to reach Labrador habitually, and it now appears that Au-
dubon’s description of the nest and eggs found there was entirely incorrect,
answering better to that of some warbler.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCEs. 199

Empriponax (PusiLuus var.) Tratui--Traill’s Flycatcher—p. 327. I have
no doubt that the Colorado valley specimens mentioned were of this race,
though the differences between it and var. pusi/lus are now narrowed down by
intermediate specimens to a more brownish-olive color, and darker wing-
bands, shorter tail and tarsus. I have since found other specimens connect-
ing them not uncommon in Ventura Co., where I saw none until May 22d,
when their peculiar notes became noticeable. These differ from any I have
ever heard uttered by the true pusillus, which is an abundant species in the
north, and was only by accident omitted in my published report on Cal. Or-
nithology. The whole description of its nest, eggs and habits was by a blun-
der inserted under #. Hammondii on p. 331, from line 9 to 28, which species.
was reported by Baird, from Monterey.

KE, (FLAVIVENTRIS Var.?) DIFFIcILIS.—Yellow-bellied Flycatcher—-p. 328. The
western race of this species proves to be really more different from the east-
ern than that of the preceding, and especially in laying spotted eggs, which,
indeed, scarcely differ from those of E. pusillus. If the allied Sayornis (and
some other birds) did not show a similar, though less marked, variation in
its eggs, independent of regional variations in plumage, we might decide from
this the question of identity, but there seem in this case, also to be interme-
diate birds. At Haywood, Alameda Co., I found about twelve nests and cap-
tured enough birds on them for certainty. All were built in the hollows out-
side or inside of stumps and trees from two to ten feet above ground, or.
against the walls of little caves in rocky banks, and two on timbers under
sheds. Mud is used for the shell, covered outside with much green moss and
lined with fine grass, fibres, etc., thus being quite different from that of the
eastern bird as described.

The eggs varied a good deal in size and form, usually being larger than
those of pusillus from Santa Cruz, length 0.73 to 0.62 by 0.58 to 0.52. Even
when under sheds the green moss was liberally used, making the nests even
more conspicuous than without it. This was the only species I found breed-
ing near Haywood, and it arrived there March 31st, though I found them near
Santa Barbara by the 21st, in 1873, three weeks earlier than noticed at San
Diego. The differences in the two races seem to be wholly in shades of color
and size, not in proportions, as formerly supposed, when young autumn
specimens of var. difficilis were the types described.

Cuztura Vauxi—Oregon Swift—p. 357. Arrived or passed through Ven-
tura County, northward, on April 22d, 1873, and through San Diego on April
26th, 1872. As thisis now considered the western race of C. pelagica, and
winters on the west slope of Central America, the undecided question as to
where the eastern birds winter, suggests that they may either be the ‘‘ var.
poliura,’’ of South America, or the species mentioned by Nuttall, as follows:
‘*The wonderful account of the swallow-roosts in Honduras given by Capt.
Henderson, appears to be entirely applicable to this species.’’ (Man. I, 738.)
The C. zonaris or some other species may, however, be referred to. I cannot
consider this bird a western race only of (. pelagica, as intermediate forms are
still unknown.

200 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Cantypre annAa—Anna Hummer—p. 358. This species though mentioned
by Gould as Mexican, had not been detected in the intermediate territory of
Arizona until 1874, when Mr. Henshaw obtained them there. Very few of the
California birds, however, leave the State in winter, if any.

T have found eggs vary from 0.60 to 0.52 long, by 0.40 to 0.35, and the nests
vary half an inch in depth, according to the degree of exposure to the wind
of their locations. The amount of moss put on the outside also varies, from
almost none to a complete covering, as no doubt is the case with those of
other species. They lay eggs as early as Feb. Ist, in lat. 38°!

STELLULA CALLIOPE—Calliope Hummer—p. 363. A male of this species
was shot at Haywood, Alameda Co., April 17, 1875, the first yet found west of
the Sierra Nevada, and no doubt a straggler.

Gerococcyx CaLrrornrANus—Road-Runner—p. 368. At Saticoy, Ventura
Co.,I found a nest of this species built in a small Chilian pepper-tree (Schinus
molle), growing in a hedge, containing two eggs, apparently deserted, on April
12th, 1873. It was only four feet above ground, and not much hidden, built
of coarse sticks, with lining of straw and dry horse-dung. From seeing only
Barn Owls about there, I supposed it to belong to that bird, the eggs agreeing
more nearly with theirs in form than with the one I described, which was laid
in acage. From Dr. Brewer’s account of the usual size and form of their
eggs, I am, however, now satisfied that they belonged to this bird. The
largest measured 1.55 by 1.20 inch. In the appendix to Dr. Brewer’s work
this nest is mentioned as a Barn Owl’s.

Picus (PUBESCENS var.) GAIRDNERI—Gairdner’s Woodpecker—p. 377. This
race of P. pubescens was in 1870 supposed to be absent from Southern Cali-
fornia; but in 1872-3 I found it a common species in Ventura Co., lat. 359,
in the cool groves near the mouth of Santa Clara River, where it took the
place of S. Nuttalli, a species more common in the warmer valleys farther
inland. The specimens obtained are much nearer like the eastern race than
those from the north.

T must here remark that, from the too liberal use of the names of favorite
saints by the Spaniards, it is necessary to explain that the river above men-
tioned is over 150 miles south of the ‘‘ Santa Clara Valley’’ near San Fran-
cisco Bay, mentioned as the southern limit of this species (and elsewhere in
Orn. of Cal., Vol. 1), which is more often called San José Valley.

CoLaPres AURATUS--Golden-winged Flicker—pp. 410, 412. It is very re-
markable that specimens differing from the eastern bird only in the black
cheek-patches being tipped with red (which is reported also of Florida and
New Jersey specimens), should occur close to the Pacific coast, where we
would expect the characters of Mexicanus to predominate even in hybrids,
On Nov. 21st, 1872, I shot a splendid male specimen near San Buenaventura,
which can scarcely be supposed to have straggled from Alaska so far south,
and, like those found near 8. F. Bay, indicates some yet unexplained law of
distribution. It was considerably smaller than those of Mexicanus shot in
the same region, and probably not migratory.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 201

The following shows the comparative sizes of these and of C. chrysoides,
from Ft. Mojave, in same latitude:

C. auratus G'; length 13 inches, extent 20.20, wing 6.35.
C. Mexicanus of; length 13.75 inches, extent 21.40, wing 6.75.
C. cHRysorEs, ('; length 11.75 inches, extent 19.25, wing 6.25.

The colors of iris, bill, and feet were alike, except in the last, which had
the iris blood-red. It becomes} again a question which of the yellow-winged
species was Dr. Heermann’s ‘“‘ C. Ayresii,’’ from Cosumnes River, Cal.

In January, 1873, I shot a specimen of C. Mewicanus at the same locality,
which attracted my attention by its pale orange-color under the wings. I
found it not a hybrid, nor in any way intermediate, but a faded variety, such
as is noticed in specimens of other woodpeckers from the hot, arid regions
east of the Sierra Nevada. Though its plumage was fresh and not worn, its
back was nearly white, with dusky bars, quills gray near ends, and other
upper parts pale brown, marked as usual. It was evidently a migrant from
the border of the deserts eastward, and showed that climate can have little
to do with the characters of the two leading forms, or the intermediate race;
which is further proved by the occurrence of two species in the Colorado
valley, where no hybrids have so far been found.

The occurrence of C. auratus in Greenland and England makes its occa-
sional straggling to California less remarkable; but is it not capable of natu-
ralization here?

STRIX (FLAMMEA var.?) PRATINCOLA—Barn Owl—p. 415. Audubon’s ac-
count of the nesting of this bird in the grass, though almost incredible, is not
much less so than its building underground, as it occasionally does in Cali-
fornia, selecting a cavity in a steep bank of earth along some stream, where
the winter rains leave many such holes, perfectly dry for six or eight months
of summer. I obtained five eggs from such a cavity, Apr. 10th, 1875, at Hay-
wood, Alameda Co., where I also knew of nests in hollow trees, among
branches, and in a wind-mill, whose owner wisely protected them. Bona-
parte’s specific name, implying a general residence in fields, was therefore
badly chosen for this variety, fo® which the name Americana Aud., 1834, is
also prior, and not mistakable for Gmelin’s uncertain species. As this owl
scarcely goes north beyond lat. 42°, and stragglers are not reported from the
interval of over 3,000 miles between its range and that of S. flammea, an in-
termingling of the races must have occurred at a very remote period, if ever.
In California it is resident in the northern half of the State all the year, and
in winter its numbers are increased by migrants from the north, probably
from as far as Oregon, where it was found by Townsend and Peale.

It would not be strange if this owl was found to enlarge its underground
domicile when too small by a little burrowing, like the similar-footed but
weaker Ground Owl, or as reported of the short-footed Brachyotus by Dall.

Buteo Swarnsonti—White-throated Buzzard (of Nuttall)—p. 476. I shot
the first specimen of the typical race recorded from California, on Oct. 2d,
1872, at Saticoy, Ventura Co. Nearly, if not quite all, breeding west of the

Proo. Cau. AcAD. Sci., Vol. VI.—14,

202 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Sierra Nevada, are of the var. insignatus, while the pale race seems chiefly to
prevail in the open and arid regions eastward. I found the dark race breed-
ing down to San Diego, and they seem more common on this slope than the
B. borealis, even to Alaska. They migrate in flocks, of which one was men-
tioned in the Orn. of Cal., going north in San Diego Co., April 18th, 1862,
and on Apr. 16th, 1873, I saw a similar flock, entirely of insignatus, going north
over Ventura Co. With the first were some of Archibuteo and other species.
They returned south about Oct. 1, in Ventura Co., more or less in flocks, while
no southward movement of B. borealis occurred until a month later. My state-
ment that the average size of this species is equal to that of borealis was
founded on a comparison of females of this with males of the latter. The
wings are longer in proportion, which in dried skins is liable to mislead. The
difference between wing and total length I found in six specimens to average
only 3.72 inches, while in seven of var. calurus it averaged six inches. Al-
though Dr. Brewer thinks that the nest and eggs described by Heermann as
ot Archibuteo belonged to this bird, the description of both seems to me more
suited to the latter, which certainly breeds here.

BUTEo (LINEATUS Var.) ELEGANS—Elegant Buzzard—p. 477. The description
of the young which I copied from Cassin’s, is wrong in giving 12 instead of 6
bars on the tail, no doubt inadvertently, as he figures it correctly in Birds of
N. A. (P. R. R. Rep. X, pl. II and IIT). Isawa dead bird of this species
in Marin Co., north of 8. F. Bay in 1873, and it is doubtless the ‘‘F’. hyemalis ”’
of Townsend’s Oregon list, as the eastern race goes north to Nova Scotia. In
1872-3, I found them constant residents of Ventura Co., and not more common
in winter.

Butro oxyptErus—Sharp-winged Buzzard—p. 480. A specimen in Wood-
ward’s Museum, shot at San Diego in 1871, agrees perfectly with Cassin’s
plate, and I do not agree with Ridgway in considering it merely a variety of
B. Swainsoni. Besides its smaller size, it appears to have more transverse
scales on tarsus, and its wing is different, both in proportions of quills and
length. The dark var. fuliyinosus is also said to differ from insignatus in sooty
tint, no white on forehead, under-wing coyerts banded white, tail cinereous
umber, with seven (not ten) bars. Other differences are noted in the Cen-
tral and South American specimens, described by Ridgway. Of its relation
to B. Pennsylvanicus, suggested by J. A. Allen, I cannot decide.

Eanus LEucuRUuS—Black-shouldered Hawk—p. 488. Mr. Ridgway’s be-
lief that the Australian birds are specifically identical, will make this the
E. awxillaris Latham (1801), var. leucurus, but any inter-migration of specimens
between the two continents since the pliocene epoch, is more difficult to sup-
pose than in the case of the stronger-winged Barn Owl. Our bird does not
seem to go north of lat. 39°, and none are recorded from western Asia. I
have seen but one or two in Ventura Co., and none south of lat. 35°, so that
the California birds seem to be constant residents in the middle region of the
State, where only their favorite marshes are extensive.

Ortyx Douauiassii—Vigors, 1829. This is, apparently, merely a newly

fledged young California Quail. The locality given, ‘‘ Monterey, Cal.,’’ goes
to confirm this view, and I have found the first plumage agree closely.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 203

J. P. Dameron stated that he had been experimenting on the
propagation of Oysters and would shortly describe a method dis-
covered by himself.

Mr. Scupham read a paper suggesting that steps be taken by
the Academy to assist in bringing about the resumption of the
Geological Survey.

On motion of Mr. Scupham, a Committee was appointed to ex-
amine into the matter and report at the next meeting. Messrs.
Scupham, Blake and Ashburner, were appointed as such Com-
mittee.

Mr. Stearns made the following remarks on the death of Hon.
B. P. Avery:

Mr. President and Members of the Academy:

Since our last meeting the telegraph has brought us sad news
—information of the death of our fellow-member, the Hon. Ben-
jamin Parke Avery, United States Minister to China, who died
in the early part of November at the city of Peking.

The many excellences of the deceased, the co-operative spirit
which he ever manifested in all matters pertaining to the welfare
of his fellow-men—quietly, because he was singularly modest
and undemonstrative, yet nevertheless persistently pursuing the
even tenor of what he considered his duty—and that duty the
advancement of civilization in a new State, the promotion of
knowledge, whether in Literature, Science, or Art—and the
general refinement and elevation of the commonwealth in which
he had made his home; such qualities and such services make it
eminently proper that we should inscribe on the permanent rec-
ords of the Academy an appreciative recognition of his life and
labors, as well as an appropriate expression of our esteem, and
of sorrow for his loss.

With the example of his unassuming but honorable career be-
fore us—too brief but yet well filled with useful work—it would
be in discord with its harmony to expand these remarks into
formal eulogy.

In a letter dated July 5th of this year, the last which I re-
ceived, he wrote:

204 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

‘‘Shut within the walls of our Legation, we are as much alone as if we
were in one of the old glacial wombs of the Sierra Nevada—to think of which
makes me sigh with longing, for was I not born anew therefrom, a recuper-
ated child of Nature? Your letter with bay-leaves was right welcome, and
gave me a good sniff of Berkeley. It was pleasant to receive the University
bay, although I am not an Alumnus, and can boast no Alma-Mater except the
rough school of self-education.”’

The closing line above his autograph is ‘‘ O, California, that’s
the land for me!” Enclosed with his letter were a few plants
collected by him upon the broad summit of the mouldering
walls which surround the ancient city where he died. Our friend
has gone! He has found the tranquillity of the grave in a coun-
try remote from his native land—from the California he loved
so much; far from those he loved and the many who knew and
loved him, and who would have deemed it a privilege to have
been near him at the final moment, and to have mingled their
last farewells with his. The particulars of the closing scene
have not yet been received. We may be sure, however, that he
looked into the future without fear, and faded serenely, as the
twilight sinks into night.

Those who knew him best, and who enjoyed the precious free-
dom of intimacy, will tell you that his life was conspicuous for
its purity—his character for its many virtues—his intellect for
its refined and delicate culture—his heart for its tender and
generous sympathy. The possession of these qualities endear
a man to his fellow-men; they constitute a charming whole
whose priceless web is woven from the choicest graces of our
poor humanity; they form an enchanted mantle whose shining
folds hide the poverty of human limitations.

So lived and walked our friend among us, crowned with the
affection and respect of all who knew him. I do not say that he
was perfect, and yet if fault he had I know it not, nor never
heard it named.

Here let us rest—grateful that so true a life has been a part
of ours. We place our tribute on his grave, and say good friend
—farewell!

Resolved, That the California Academy of Sciences has learned with pro-
found regret of the death of the Honorable Benjamin Parke Avery, a fellow-
member and late United States Minister at the Court of Peking; that we

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 205

hereby recognize and express our high appreciation of his many private vir-
tues and public services.

Resolved, That these resolutions be spread on the records of the Academy
and published in the proceedings.

Reevrar Meretina, December 20TH, 1876.

Vice-President Edwards in the Chair.

Thirty-five members present.

Donations to the Museum were as follows: Thirty-three spec-.
imens of Scorpions from Arizona, from Dr. R. K. Nuttall; also
from same donor, one crustacean and one sceloporus. F. Gruber
presented a fine specimen of Cervus Mexicanus, mounted; Rhaph-
idophora subterranea from Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.

The Nominating Committee appointed by the Council and
Trustees presented their report, nominating officers for 1876, as
follows:

PRESIDENT,

GEORGE DAVIDSON.

FIRST VICE-PRESIDENT. RECORDING SECRETARY,
HENRY EDWARDS. CHAS. G. YALE.
SECOND VICE-PRESIDENT. TREASURER.
H. W. HARKNESS. ED. F. HALL, Jr.
CORRESPONDING SECRETARY, LIBRARIAN.
THEO. A. BLAKE. WM. J. FISHER.

DIRECTOR OF MUSEUM.
W. G. W. HARFORD.

TRUSTEES.
D. D. COLTON, R. E. C. STEARNS,
GEORGE DAVIDSON, WM. ASHBURNER.
THOS. P. MADDEN, GEO. E. GRAY,

R. C. HARRISON.

2060 % PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Charles Wolcott Brooks, of the Nominating Committee, read
a statement giving their reasons for having nominated certain of
those upon the ticket presented. .

On motion, the report of the Committee was adopted and the
Committee discharged.

Mr. Scupham, of the Committee appointed on the question of
the continuance of the State Geological Survey, reported a Me-
morial to be transmitted to the State Legislature, asking them to
revive the Survey. The Memorial was as follows:

MEMORIAL.

To the Honorable, the Senate and Assembly of the State of California:

The California Academy of Sciences would respectfully represent that the
Geological Survey is a work of great practical importance, as well as scientific
and educational value, to the people of this State.

That by the action of the Legislature of 1873-74, the accumulated and un-
published material of several years’ work was placed for safe keeping in the
custody of the Regents of the University, where, for want of further provis-
ion, the greater portion still lies unimproved.

That there have been already published four volumes of the geological re-
ports, viz.: one of geology, two of paleontology, and one ot ornithology, be-
sides smaller pamphlets, and several topographical maps, the beauty, accu-
racy and value of which are appreciated and acknowledged by all who have
carefully examined them.

That of the unpublished matter already accumulated, there is the material
for a segond volume of geology, for a volume of botany, nearly ready to be
issued, and the greater portion of the material for a second volume of orni-
thology devoted to the aquatic birds.

That the map of Central California is so nearly Aciehed that the active field
work of one more season would complete it, This map embraces nearly one-
half the area of the State, and extending from Lassen’s Peak on the north, to
Visalia on the south; includes all the more important mining districts within
the limits of California. The work so far done upon it is unexceptionable,
and when completed, it will possess the highest practical value, will meet
with a ready sale, and be the most important contribution to the geography
of this coast that has ever been made.

That a general geological map of the whole State has been partially drawn
and colored, and could be finished and published in such a way as to show
the extent of the present knowledge of the geology of the State (subject, of
course, to such improvements in detail as may hereafter be developed by fu-
ture work) at no great expense.

That the U. S. Coast Survey map of the peninsula of San Francisco has
been geologically colored in great detail, and only waits the means for its
publication.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 207

Finally, that these unpublished works are greatly needed for the benefit of
our public schools, as well as for all the higher educational interests of the
State, and that when completed, they would convey the most accurate infor-
mation with regard to our coal fields, quicksilver mines, quartz veins and
hydraulic washings, which cannot fail to exercise a most beneficial influence
in aiding the further development of these important industries.

In view of the foregoing facts, the California Academy of Sciences would
respectfully pray that your Honorable Bodies revive the State Geological Sur-
vey, and make a liberal appropriation for its continuance and completion.

On motion, the Memorial was approved and ordered forwarded.

Charles Wolcott Brooks presented an additional or supple-
mentary report from the Nominating Committee, substituting as
one of the Trustees, Dr. Geo. Hewston in place of George
Davidson, and stating that it had been considered questionable
whether the President of the Academy could also serve as a
Trustee.

Considerable discussion ensued upon the subject, and finally
John F. Miller was elected as a substitute for Professor David-
son.

The following were elected Judges and Inspectors of Election:
C. D. Gibbesand T. J. Lowry, Judges; R. 8. Floyd and Samuel
Hubbard, Inspectors.

[The following paper, read at the Regular Meeting held July 19, 1875, should have been
printed in the Proceedings of that Meeting. ]

Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No. 14.—Notes on the Genus
Catocala, with Descriptions of new Species.

BY HENRY EDWARDS.

The beautiful moths included in the genus Catocala are among the more in-
teresting of the larger Noctuide, and appear to have obtained their fullest
representation on the North American continent. They are natives, for the
most part of the northern temperate zone, and though some are said to exist
in the Hawaiian Islands, and I am acquainted with one very large species, (a
mutilated example of which was collected by the late Baron Terloo, and pre-
sented to me by Dr. H. Behr) which comes from the table land of Mexico,
near Guadalajara, still the United States, Japan, N. China, Siberia and Eu-

Proc, Cau, ACAD. Scr., Vou. VI.—15,

208 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

rope must be regarded as the home of the genus, the number of species in our
own country far exceeding that of the whole of the other districts put together.
According to Staudinger’s last catalogue, thirty-four species are found in
Europe and the adjacent territories, including Siberia, four or five are known
to exist in Japan, and probably the same number in northern China, while the
list of North American forms, including those mentioned in the present paper,
has increased to no less than eighty-three species. In the islands of the
southern Pacific and Australia are several genera which recall the color-
ation and structure of Catocala, but are separated from it by well defined
limits, and it is almost certain that no true example of the genus is to be
found in the southern hemisphere. Our northern States species have been
recently admirably figured by Mr. H. Strecker, in his Lepidopt. Rhopaloc. et
Heterocera, while Mr. A. R. Grote, of Buffalo, has published, in the Trans.
Am. Ent. Soc., Vol. 4, 1872, descriptions of the whole of those then known to
him. In Mr. Grote’s valuable paper he has tabulated the genus as follows:

Section 1. Secondaries black and unbanded above.

oe a black above, with white median band.

ue various shades of red, with black median band.
orange above, with black median band.
black above, with narrow yellow median band.
£6 yellow above, with median black band.
si yellow above, without median band.

MO TH IO

It is somewhat remarkable that, with one exception, the whole of the Pa-
cific Coast species at present’“known belong to the third section, viz., those
which have the lower wings of various shades of red, sections one, six and
seven being entirely unrepresented. The late Baron Terloo is said by Dr.
Behr to have observed at San Jose, in this State, a specimen near to Catocala
relicta (section 2) of New England, and I myself, last year, observed in San
Mateo County a very large species, with pale yellow median band, evidently
nearly allied to Catocala cerogama (section 6). It was sitting on the trunk of
a large tree of Hsculus californicus, but to my great regret, evaded my attempt
to capture it. I could not, however, be mistaken in the color of the under
wings. Itis quite probable that among our oak groves many species un-
known to science exist, and we may confidently hope that those of our coast
now enumerated will be at least doubled in the course of afew years. It may
be well to notice that these insects come readily to sugar, Mr. G. Mathew, of
H. M.S. Repulse, being so fortunate as to capture no less than 27 specimens
of C. Aholibah, Streck., in a single night, on some oak trees prepared by him
at Esquimalt, Vancouver Island.

The following are the species at present known to inhabit the Pacific Coast:

SEcTIoNn 3.

Catocala californica. W.H, Edwards, Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., Vol. 2, 1864.
“«Expands 2-4; inches.
‘‘Primaries, dark brown, with a gray tinge, the transverse lines rather
indistinct, the elbowed line with two teeth, equally prominent, and otherwise

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 209

resembling C. Marmorata, Edw. Beyond this is a brown band, bordered by a
faint serrated, grayish line, which is edged without by black. Reniform,
black; sub-reniform, brown.

“Secondaries, rosy red, nearly the same shade as in Marmorata. Median
band, narrow, almost straight, contracting in the middle, and terminating
abruptly two lines before the margin. Border somewhat sinuous towards the
anal angle. Apical spot, white, tinged with reddish. Fringe long and white.
On the under side of secondaries, the red shade occupies two-thirds of the
wing. From Yreka, Cal.’,—W. H. Epwarps, loc. cit.

I have two undoubted examples of this species, both, however in bad con-
dition, one of which was taken near Prescott, Arizona, and the other at Car-
son City, Nevada.

Catocala Cleopatra. Hy. Edw. na. sp.

Primaries, dark bluish gray, powdered with brown atoms, transverse lines
rather indistinct, slightly olivaceous; the t. a. edged with black exteriorly,
and with the indentations rather small; t. p., delicately shaded with brown
and olive, with two teeth on third and fourth nervures, strongly marked with
black. Reniform, indistinct, olivaceous; sub-reniform, whitish, somewhat
angular, its longest angle pointing outwardly; above it, and interior to the
reniform, is a dull whitish patch; and above the reniform, and touching the
costa, is a strongly marked brownish shade. Submarginal line, gray, whitish
and broadest towards the apex, Fringes, white, with brownish scales, except
where crossed by the nervures where they are black.

Secondaries, bright rosy red, with fawn-colored hairs at the base. Median
band moderate; broadest in the middle, not toothed interiorly, and terminat-
ing two-tenths of an inch from the inner margin. Marginal band, not broad,
except at the anterior angle, slightly sinuous as it approaches the inner mar-
gin. Fringes, broadly white, flecked with brown scales. Those of interior
margin, long, dark drab, paler towards the base.

Under side. Primaries, white, with the usual black bands, the basal one
oblique, shading into the median a little below the middle. Median, moderate,
narrowest towards the posterior margin. Marginal band, broad towards apex,
shading into fawn color at extreme margins.

Secondaries. Two-thirds of the interior portion, rosy red, as in the upper
side, shading into white towards the anterior margin. Fringes, white, a little
yellowish at anterior angle. Head and thorax dark gray, mottled with
browu and olive scales, whitish on the disc, where the scales form an «lmost
triangular white mark, edged posteriorly with a black line. Abdomen smoky
brown above, paler beneath, and there dotted with fine brown scales.

Expanse of wings, 2 60 inch.

‘Length of body, 1.00 inch.

Berkeley, Contra Costa County, Cal. (One ¢’. Coll. Hy. Edw.)

This species may be easily recognized by the bluish gray tint of the prima-
ries, dashed with olivaceous, while the almost regular median band of second-
aries, recalls the European C. Pacta, and the Atlantic and Canadian C. Con-
eumbens, Walk. Like all our Californian species, it appears at present to be
exceedingly rare.

210 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Catocala Mariana. Hy. Edw. na. sp.

Primaries, dark iron gray, with bluish tinge, especially towards the mar-
gins. T.a., only slightly dentate, shading into black on the costa, and term-
inating on the interior margin in a whitish patch. T.p., commencing at
about one-third the length of costa, then running outwardly into two strong
indentations, marked interiorly with black, and towards the interior margin,
sinuate into a long and narrow tooth, terminating in white patch on the in-
terior margin. Sub-terminal, whitish. Posterior margins, paler gray, with
a row of well defined black dots in the intro-nerval spaces. Reniform, black-
ish and indistinct. Sub-reniform, open, resting on whitish space. Fringes,
dull white, mottled with brownish.

Secondaries, rose color, with basal hairs and fringe of anal margin brownish.
Median band, moderate, constricted in the middle, forming rather a sharp
angle outwardly near its center, which is its widest part. It does not narrow
into a point at its termination, but ends abruptly about three-sixteenths of an
inch from the abdominal margin. Marginal band, with deeper sinuations, but
otherwise resembling the previous species. Fringes, clear white, very slightly
mottled with brownish. Head and thorax, iron gray. Abdomen, smoky
brown, paler beneath.

Under side, as in C. Cleopatra.

Expanse of wings, 2.50 inch.

Length of body, 1.00 inch.

Vancouver Island. Hy. Edw. and G. Mathew.

Closely resembling C. Cleopatra, and the Atlantic C. Briseis, but differing
from the former by the darker color of the primaries, the duller and more
scarlet red of secondaries, and by the less regular median band; and from
Briseis by the broader band of secondaries, and by its abrupt termination far
from the abdominal margin.

Catocala Faustina. Strecker. Lepid. Rh. et Heter., No. 3, Page 21.

‘Male. Expands 25% inch.

‘* Body above, gray; beneath, white.

‘‘Upper surface. Primaries, bluish gray, powdered with brown atoms;
marginal spots, transverse lines and bands, well defined. Reniform, distinct
and surrounded by an outer circle, which is produced in two points on ex-
terior. Sub-reniform, white; above this, and interior to the reniform, is a
white space. Fringe, light gray.

“‘ Secondaries, scarlet. Median band, moderately wide, angulated at center
outwardly, and terminating somewhat abruptly about two lines from the ab-
dominal margin. Marginal band, with a deep indentation between the first
and second median nervules. Apical spot and emarginations, rosy. Fringe,
on exterior margin, white; on interior margin, gray.

‘Under surface. Primaries, white.

‘¢ Secondaries. Interior two-thirds rosy; towards costa, this color becomes
lost in white; almost imperceptible indications of a discal lune.’’—StTREcKER,
loc. cit.

Arizona, Wheeler Expedition, 1871. Coll. H. Strecker. Dr. H. Behr,
Nevada. ,

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. ya

Catocala Perditu. Hy. Edw. n. sp.

Very closely allied to the last species, and, but for Mr. Strecker’s assurance
to the contrary, I should have considered it identical. The transverse lines,
however, are heavier, and the reniform spot is more distinctly gray in color.
The mesial band of secondaries is wider, and continued further towards the
abdominal margin. The apices are pure white, without any tint of rose color,
and the amount of red on the lower side is very decidedly less than is to be
found in Faustina. In other respects I can perceive no difference.

San Mateo County, Cal. (Coll. Hy. Edw.)

Catocala Hippolyta. Hy. Edw. n. sp.

Primaries, pale silver gray, the whole of the lines brownish, distinct. T.
a., shaded with dark, particularly on costa. T.p., with the teeth very regu-
lar, almost in a line with each other, and of equal length. Reniform,
brownish, indistinct. Sub-reniform, whitish, not connected with the t. p.
line. Subterminal line, with regular tecth, but pale and rather indistinct.

Secondaries, yellowish red, same color asin Parta. Marginal, broad on
apex, unusually narrow towards abdominal margin, where are two deep in-
dentations. Mesial band, exceedingly narrow, widest in the middle, term-
inating very abruptly about two-tenths of an inch from the margin. Apices
and marginations, slightly rosy. Fringe, white. Under surface, as in
Perdita.

Head and thorax, gray, mixed with white. Abdomen, pale grayish drab.

Expanse of wings, 2.75 inch.

San Mateo County, Cal. (Coll. Hy. Edw.)

This is a beautiful and strongly marked species, the very pale gray of the
primaries, and the remarkably narrow mesial band of secondaries, serving to
distinguish it from any other with which I am acquainted.

Catocala Luciana. Hy. Edw. un. sp.

Primaries, brownish, gray, with yellowish tinge; the whole of the lines and
spots very heavy and strongly marked, shading into black on the margin.
Reniform, large, blackish, surrounded by paler ring. Sub-reniform, distinct,
open, fawn drab.

Secondaries, yellowish red, color of Parta. Marginal band, rather narrow
and regular, with only slight indentations near abdominal margin. Mesial
band, also narrow, widest in center, and terminating abruptly about two-
tenths of an inch from abdominal margin. Apices, with an orange tint.
Fringe, yellowish white.

Under surface, yellowish white; inner half of secondaries, red; the bands,
all narrow.

Expanse of wings, 3.00 inch.

Colorado, T. L. Mead. (Coll. Hy. Edw.)

Catocala Irene. Behr. (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 1870.)

Primaries, yellowish brown, paler along the margins. The lines are all in-
distinct, and lost in the brown shading of the wings. T. a., almost obsolete.

212 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

T. p., with two deep teeth, above the middle, directed towards the apex, and
surmounted by a blackish shade. Sub-terminal line grayish, with regular
teeth. Reniform, small, brown. Sub-reniform, almost obsolete, connected
with a paler shade, which touches the costa.

Secondaries, yellowish scarlet, color of Unzjuga. Marginal band, moderate,
rather deeply toothed towards abdominal margin. Mesial, rather narrow,
slightly constricted in the middle, and terminating in a point about one-
eighth of an inch from margin. The under side of secondaries has an un-
usually large proportion of red.

Expanse of wings, 2.60 inch.

Fort Tejon, Coll. Br. Behr. Mendocino Co., Cal., Coll. Hy. Edw.

Mr. Strecker expresses some doubts as to the identity of my specimen with
Dr. Behr’s species, (Lepid. Rhop. et Heter., page 100) but, upon again care-
fully comparing them, I am convinced that they are alike, and in this opinion
I am sustained by Dr. Behr. The species resembies Unijuga in the color of
the secondaries, but it is much smaller, and is very widely separate in the
ornamentation of the superior wings, which are browner and more confused
than those of its Atlantic relative.

Catocala Marmorata. W.H. Edwards. (Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., Vol. 2, 1864.)

‘* Expands 4 inches.

‘Head and thorax, light gray. Abdomen, wanting.

‘Upper surface. Primaries, pale gray and white, more or less powdered
with dark gray or blackish atoms, and bear a superficial resemblance to the
European (. Frazini. Transverse lines, black. Beyond the t. p. line, a
brown band, succeeded outwardly by another, which is much narrower, and
pure white. Reniform, dark, and shape not well defined. Sub-reniform,
joined by a line to, not formed by, a sinus of the t. p. line. Fringe, white.

‘« Secondaries, scarlet, of a lovely shade. Mesial band, narrowed in the
‘middle, and extends almost to the abdominal margin. Fringe, white.

‘‘ Habitation, Yreka,, Cal.’-—W. H. Epwanrps, loc. cit.

Of this grand insect, apparently the largest of all known American species,
I am entirely ignorant, save through the above description and Mr. Strecker’s
admirable illustration.

Catocala Stretchiti. Behr. (Trans. Am. Ent. Soc., 1870.)

Primaries, silver gray, very distinctly mottled with black irrorations.
Lines, all faint. T.a., whitish, and with very small teeth, running its
length almost straight and without deviation. T. p. also nearly straight,
and with even indentations. Reniform, blackish, with a double ring, and
surrounded by a dark cloud. Sub-reniform, whitish, with a fawn-colored
tinge; rather small but very distinct. Sub-terminal line runs parallel to the
t. p.

Secondaries, yellowish red, paler thanin Parta. Mesial band, very narrow,
scarcely constricted in the middle, and turning into a very distinct hook.
about two-tenths of an inch from the abdominal margin. Marginal band nar-

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 213

row, with two small indentations near anal angle. Apices and marginations,
very broadly white.

Thorax, gray. Abdomen, smoky drab.

Under side with usual bands, and half the secondaries yellowish red.

Expanse of wings, 2.85 inch.

Virginia City, Nevada, R. H. Stretch. (Coll. Dr. Behr.)

A very distinct species, of which the specimen in Dr. Behr’s collection is
the only one known tome. No other species has the hook of the mesial band
so distinct as this, and the lines of the primaries are more regular and parallel
to each other than in any other with which I am acquainted.

Catocala Aholibah. Strecker. (Lepid. Rhop. et Heteroc., Page 72.)

‘Expands 3 inches.

‘* Head and thorax above, dark brown, with scattered white and gray scales.
Abdomen, brown. Beneath, light brownish gray.

““Upper surface. Primaries, dark brown, frosted, and intermixed with
white and gray; a white space adjoining the reniform, inwardly; reniform, in-
distinct; sub-reniform, very small, white, surrounded with black, and entirely
disconnected with the transverse posterior line. Secondaries, crimson with
‘brownish hair at the base; median band, rather narrow and regular, and con-
tinued to within a short distance of the abdominal margin, where it turns up-
wards, and is lost in the brownish hair that clothes that paazt.

‘* Under surface. Primaries, crossed by three black bands, none of which
join or merge with each other; the spaces between the base and sub-basal
band, and between the latter and the median band, are orange colored, inclin-
ing a little to crimson at the interior margin; the space between the median
and marginal bands is white; fringe, white, with black at the termination of
the veins. Secondaries, inner two-thirds, crimson, a little paler than on
upper side; rest, white; marginal band, tinged with gray at and near the costa;
median band terminates about one line from the abdominal margin; slight in-
dications of a discal crescent, connecting with the median band; fringe,
white.

‘* Habitation, California.’’—H. Strecker, loc. cit.

The above description was drawn up by Mr. Strecker from a P presented to
him by Mr, J. Behrens. The 6j', of which two specimens are in my collection,
is smaller (2.60 inch.), the mesial band is wide, and reaches fully to the ab-
domina! margin, while at the base of secondaries is a deep black shade formed
by the hairs covering that region. The brown mottled shades of primaries
are also much darker and richer, and the lines and spots more distinct.

C, Aholibah appears to be the most common of the Pacific Coast species,
and is found frem San Francisco to Vancouver Island, in which latter locality
it is, as I have previously stated, quite abundant. It is by no means confined
to the ‘* higher mountains of California,’’ as Mr. Behrens formerly imagined,
that gentleman having recently taken a fine specimen at Saucelito, on the
shores of our bay. I have received examples from Oregon and Washington
Territory.

For the purpose of comparison, I am induced to add a description of the
Mexican species spoken of at the commencement of this paper:

214 PROCEEDINGS OF THE CALIFORNIA

Catocala Cassandra. Hy. Edw. na. sp.

Primaries, dull gray, clouded with black. Lines, all distinct and regular.
T.a., nearly straight, and with the indentations small. T. p., slightly bent
on costa, with small and regular teeth, running obliquely from its center to
interior margin, wanting the usual elbowed line, and reaching the margin be-
hind its center. Sub-terminal line, almost obsolete. Reniform, black, sur-
rounded by a black cloud, which reaches from costa to interior margin. Sub-
reniform, whitish, indistinct.

Secondaries, pale red. Mesial band, narrow; of equal width for more than
half its length, then abruptly narrowed, and bending almost at a right angle
to abdominal margin. Marginal band, broad at the apex, with the indenta-
tions near anal angle moderate. Apices white, tinged with orange red.
Fringe, white.

Under side. Usual bands, the mesial of secondaries terminating abruptly
about two-tenths of an inch before reaching abdominal margin, and not con-
tinued to the margin asin the upper side. Inner half of secondaries, pale
red.

Expanse of wings, 3.60 inch.

Guadalajara, Mexico, Baron Terloo. (Coll. Hy. Edw.)

Its large size, primaries clouded with black, and the peculiar form of the
mesial band of secondaries, will serve to distinguish this from any other
known species.

SECTION 4.

Secondaries, orange above, with black median band.

Catocala Zoe. Behr. (Proc. Ent. Soc. Phil., 1870.)

Primaries, rich brownish gray, mottled with white, the basal portion dark-
est. Across the center of the wing reaching from the base to the t. a. line, is
a black dash, surmounted by some clear white scales. The t. a. is richly
clouded with black, and only slightly dentate, chiefly towards the interior
margin. T. p., black, with two large central teeth, and four smaller ones, of
equal size, running towards the interior margin. The sub-terminal line is clear
white, with the indentations small and regular. Reniform, large, whitish»
surrounded by a double ring. Sub-reniform, very smallin the ,j\, large in P,
open, and in the latter sex joining the t. p. line. Fringes, gray, mottled with
brown.

Secondaries, bright orange, clouded at the base by brownish hairs. Mesial
band, narrow, broadest in center, much constricted near abdominal margin,
and there turned upwards, reaching the margin about its middle. Marginal
band, moderate, very deeply bi-dentate near the analangle. Apices and mar-
ginations, deep buff. Fringe, dirty white, alternated with brownish black.

Head and thorax, gray, mottled with white. Abdomen, smoky fawn color.

ACADEMY OF SCIENCES. 215

Under side. Usual bands, the lighter ones of primaries being largely suf-
fused with orange, and the same color occupies nearly two-thirds of the sec-
ondaries.

Expanse of wings, 2.50 inch. j', 3.05 inch. P.

Napa and Marin Counties, Cal. Vancouver Island. (Coll. Dr. Behr. H.
Strecker. Hy. Edw.)

This species very closely resembles both C. Ilia and C. innubens of the At-
lantic States, but differs very materially from both in the pale color of the
secondaries and by the more deeply toothed marginal band. The shading of
the primaries very nearly approaches that of Jlia, but the lines are clearer,
and more decidedly mottled with white.

It will thus be seen how very smallis our present list of Catocale, compared
with those of the Atlantic States, and yet, as the plants on which the cater-
pillars feed, viz., oaks, willows and poplars, are common throughout the
State, we might reasonably look for an abundant harvest of species. Perhaps
more collectors in the field, and a determined and energetic search for them in
their haunts, will yield us a larger number of these beautiful moths, which
at present, not alone in species, but also in individuals, may be ranked among
the greatest of our entomological rarities. The following are noticed in this
paper, the names of those which I have described as new having been derived
from the heroines of Shakespeare’s plays:

CCbOemN COG FURIALE 25, ane ae Rae Catena ies owl iaye'in acter etaet W. H. Edw.
SSG ANU LEHIEETE Tet TCs Gee te Oe SRL asia dx Siciace's, adele Hy. Edw. n. sp.
4S Mariana...... Qc ATID Asbo Cosma don Rea reap oOGer Hy. Edw. n. sp.
Af TOU RUU UA s GB aa neenc CAnEOO CU Sots SoCo EAOOS canoer Strecker.
a TR OG SONG SOA nnn DG SOCOL ln mec Rgatancur Hy. Edw. nu. sp.
iS LETT Tipe OBO OO OOS a) Gade soy CISCne Hy. Edw. un. sp.
cs EMCLOIUE ao ood Salen afore oaieelnee yt oe hein sioe aeiceinieta es Hy. Edw. n. sp.
as YR ROARS AB UE EBC LID CCIM LE HAO UC OLILS 5 SORT CUDA E CHO EOE Behr
“ LU URLS OCR ESISCH CCAS OCEGGE TA COPS HET EEe W. H. Edwards.
&§ ISIERERA Otay dae BO eer: ha SES TOUR cao SOF Ce ACO EIIOS ae OCC Oe Behr
“se PVAN IO SOR OC Bae doe bide ac Ce StH OUD e DOE OOD SOCa ore Strecker.
se OGSSONOt G1 Ged veh shea Gina Hel SII INE otis Se Hy. Edw. n. sp

INDEX OF AUTHORS.—1875.

PAGE

BLAKE, Dr. JAMES—On Roscoelite, or Vanadium Mica..............0- ce eee eeee eee .. 150

Verbal Remarks on the Molecular Relations of Beryllium.....................- 151

On the Results of Glacial Action at the head of Johnson’s Pass, in the Sierras. 170

Orme Phy loxenaee nets yae erases alo eerste eter oteiercrasicts eiels!ctsia; a(n « cje7s/u's 0's aiwiale|nieisieiele 180

Onvihe ietmen Grameen sae car osetetiieretatets eine eieicfeleiniaic ley elaieleteiw’ole! ‘cinlave\ | c\etwie/eisie(siur 182
Brooxs, CHARLES Woxucorr-—-Report of Japanese Vessels wrecked in the North Pacific

Ocean, from the earliest records to the present time...............---..-- 50

Early Migrations—Ancient Maritime Intercourse of Western Nations before the
ONPISMANGHNA OLO. OUC ¢ as /ce our ete aininl matte wis) cle mitiei nic as olela Alsialeiejala.ea\aleje «iasina/aie 67

Origin and Exclusive Development of the Chinese Race. Inquiry into the
Evidence of their American Origin, suggesting a great Antiquity of the

Human Races on the American Continent..... 1.0.22... ceseeee cee eeeeeee 95
Curisty, S. B.—Notes on a Meteor seen at Berkeley............0. cece es ceee cece ec eecece 49
CLayton, J. E.—The Glacial Period—Its Origin and Development...................+. 123
Cooper, Dr. J. G.—The Origin of Californian Land Shells..................2.00 e000- 12
On Shells of the West Slope of America, No. II..............-. Sahota) dy aicts (e's ala'a'e 14
New Facts relating to California Ornithology, No. 1..................e eevee ee 189
DAVIDSON, PROM. GEORGE— Tranpit of .WONUSs 5c cicsececee! aie s cis tacalne sesesehs cones 9
ADFASIONS.OF TNO: CORSE Ole el APNAN) oat eratsinrolelclafodie o vela wit ietaie a willake| @.aielciers's/eia\e\auStoie\s wie ese 28

Note on the probable Cause of the Low Temperature of the Depths of the
OER AOR EE COS ORCC Se BRAS SCC ES S CHRO DAFCE SUC OCIEU SCOR COnE Crary Tun 4

Epwarps, Henry—Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No.11. List of the Sphingidz of Cali-
fornia and Adjacent Districts, with Descriptions of New Species......... 86
Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No.12. On some New Species of Noctuide......... 132
Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No. 13. On the Harlier Stages of Vanessa Californica. 146
Darlingtonia/Gavtornien A eOrrey ontasaicere tis ose eislateisiam bos shea cralpiaajd 0.0, 01s 0.0, sla\s ava aie 161

Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No. 14. Notes on the genus Catocala, with Descrip-
HONE OL NGWHSDCRIES Meter resets auc eahti> oiciwialere side mie!seik o olas's <taieiemroe ds om 207

Pacific Coast Lepidoptera, No. 15. Description of a New Species of Catocala,
from San Diego............ PRET STs sielet ain cis aes olacays sjeianvew eels ian rece eiere 185
Gripzons, Dr. W. P.—Description of a New Species of Trout from Mendocino County. 142
KextLoaG, Dr. A.—California and Colorado ‘“‘ Loco”? Poisons..................- sa sla aa 3
Different Varieties of Eucalyptus, and their Characteristics................-++: 31
EUAN TEENY VERTED EVN UN INS Greta Yanct overs avecaee sac a1 (ay sie orate) he are: avstapnreliie’e.e, 5 sie/s/aheldi else's oapeve-glaisin nats 140
Lilium Lucidum........ ELGG ede RAB Ud dhe Ege ODDO DIOR DOETDORG Can COR OOE nee nan. 144
LEContrE, Pror. JosEPH—On some of the Ancient Glaciers of the Sierras.............. 38

Lick, JaMEs—Deed to Academy of Market Street Lot....... .....ceescceccccecccccees 177

218 INDEX OF AUTHORS.

PAGE.
Lockineton, W. N.—List of Echinid# now in the Collection of the California Acad-
OMY (Of HClEN CEA s {cic spe keeystosinie a lsisiors' oa Sim erentertatale Bele rmnbie cea tate aloe ati sieiete tere 152
Lowry, T. J.—The Protracting Sextant—A New Instrument for Hydrographic Survey-
1) Mee R DoCS DODRCROT 65.0713 00 JOC GHOROSOaG! ALG Oo dat Hobe Ade SOs or ona aaUoS 5
Hydrographic Suryeyin ge ciceriiat ase cele ce «/a: aevalo assets eetje is ealasetaieieteleieeons seman tate 81
A New Method of Determining Positions of the Sounding Boat. Application
of the Two-Point Problem to Hydrographic Surveying.................. 167
STEARNS, ROBERT E. C.—On the Vitality of Certain Land Mollusks.................... 185
Remarks on the Death of Hon. Benjamin Parke Avery ...... ................., 203
SPECIAL CoMMITTEE—Report and Memorial on the Continuance of the State Geological
SURVEY aia ssreic 5 apseeetcreie ass craic alars.a“s sious-ols(oinsea aivbe.ey Sipiejeicle ia veleemein ieiatelera tetas 206
TRUSTEES OF ACADEMY—In the matter of the Lick Estate.... ............. cece essen eee 176
Winstow, Dr. C. F.—Verbal Remarks on Fossil Mammalian Remains in San Fran-
CISCO ie ecole eielwieretaletcre’erele «'n's.s clereintotannatec te crete atelte sistovstetelena ms telcts tenants eee 141

SE ae LN DEX

PAGE.
Abrasions, Japan..........s.ee ee senses 28
ACIAS' GTAP oe 2 sek ccc tee eee cocsiele 182
FEMOpas....-...scese0 ee RRA ee Ono 89
AASB Bale x «a cnlnivic.s/0is ic esta aivisie'es se oieenes 158
IN SB TSOMA 01a sin, alctere teiniels cic loieal sais niece's a ere 197
(ATE TTT ERS REIS CE eA COODE SbOe Danan 27
Alexia MyOsotis.y. 0.2 = + echo ese cecas 25
PATORIG HOULOMeiciesnts dc lole en aisiaies shales osiee 25
Amatia Hewstoni.... ~ .csceceeees sie 25
2.071901 Ee BOR OEIIRE OCD eRe O CO ACCOR CE
TBM aa carta cordial racic oe ete lore mainte) «srs 133
AncylUS CYas8USs.... ..--25cc0c-0--2-. 20
Ancylus Kootaniensis...............--- 25
PA TITUAINU seesaat ciate sicisia «ie a'ais'eiecin:-iereis ete ws. 3 136
Wt TO? (CLEA OPE GOA ORO RC GCUMDTOCOLOOE 135
PPG Oe ori sclaicisclels=i= sioinecincieeiv as 22
Ie Be eee inc SOO EUG COO 152
PEEGEOTLOGNS = 5 eniscis parila eis Shei een 87. 93
Ariolimax Californicus.........--...... 24
PATE THON «of cleeiel vine oiatd siallel~ si «l= 25
ATIONTAS tafe siecle cis cid ateein lew ar eee ameeie 16
Assiminea Californica................-. 27
INBEV ED GLOSS cassie eae nke hetsiee gS eee 3, 4
WI REROTIOMNU aalee cee Oe cee te wie ster ab iotan is 9
Avery, 8. Ps Deathyvor Voi. /tees os lone 203
PA MEOTEL att raictol sas alta eer eeicins coals 136
154113 |: ISSR cc Leeks: COC EAT 160, 189
GOO WOON «.<cnse,ove cr’ oop eieeey See ate ince eis 34
Bloodwood Mountain.................. 34
PSO REIDY: loss.) «inten minles sinie 3, 30, 66, 140, 144, 161
Box:tree Bastard. ..J3426ek dere sank + eh oe 31 |
SFE YIIB oc. aiciakise ola seals be steietn mere, «.anlena 158
(BYUBSUS sc ae cs: son Dap Btesbictrettania oslo 158
[3D hb iT) eRe BARS here Ree. 14, 185
BUG 0 os aiaioteie ayia en pide See ae 201
Buzzard woe. = cic dees, Ate Se Meee seks 3 201
Bythinella Binneyi...453)sssea-<0..02-- 26
CRN IGG chaciaie:oia.c sian oulaaie eratereiaisy oo iin e's ‘si 200
ORIN PY LIGE oe ina arma aeniote ndpielelain sloitsa.a 18

PAGE
WO RRUEL IDET C150). </oree'sin's a 0,0) save a arava nate eS 157
WAGE LB sec aiatcsiceaue ste) soem 184, 207
Cherocampini....... Sei cl!)
RONESRET sis ahorseiasicceccle ce cs ame ne 199
(GLEN TCL Othe GN SOD REO UGAB ECCI OP Oe e 95
ISMOMWORUON: prats(ac coe co sieistececelueicia > Scie 196
RODVBOMNRUEES «caw oc Sane wis aactecrastasteces 194
PACER Ee cee cscs cans sass Sealers fad alaiets 152
WLYBEARUELOD tccejainletaesseeeieces! oc aeics, sto os
MochitopaRowellain s/s ces. 1s «nas ccciace 26
WOTEBECSS. otaaleRnir aeite d cece is s cececomeng 200

WONGHOTOLY:; ariamee orien) Gr ome sic 2s Lop Gh
GOMtTODOS Ses raptors slsciere ts vene cress eel Oe

Contlnsy sso see scpeaihe nes» oaks « sleek s Saasate 13
CORVUGS saresmiceneien pakicta tes aes cio cay 197
@rossbily i258; OS ae 27
MST OWE aes street activins onal cists ave "ee jaixrere eiela'a. oe 197
Gurrents, OCEAN: coe Ss. wscicc ov ccs thee 50
CS aTANE TIEN ye caterers ee taigla e/a abns'c a cinite efeisiavers 198
DPudaloehilasaccisse lsh tts oes 22--
Darhineioniaics pest rete: Sak; F Aeeeaia a!
Deathiof B.. PP. Avery. $f 22.0 5..5.5006. 203
Peete PGB cosas actos Steeler alee titles 177
PUTO Betas 3, Fase Sod adleveees De Binvei dieete arets 90
BGA GrOneae tate ack WS aR toe ee 193
Wepins Of Oceanic. caset sess) occas cee 29
IBSHIOSHION Sy carci sternite tmoenivinte aac a mate 152
Diadematide...... + ROAM Soe a iote is erate 153

Donations to Museum........3, 5,27, 49, 66
78, 79, 123, 1381, 142, 145,149, 159
160, 166, 179, 183, 187, 188, 189, 205

GOIN ATACH AUS cox ars diniafuieis 10, nels a1 cc's 157
CD INT oe sore are ccs omayaudnin beteicle Namenad oe 152
GH IM OCELATUIN s- «are cvterea sss ley pleiccrvaisie are 158
PCH EN OMMEGCH OS)... ve gaa feteale i= = 6 <sis ees 153
EC DANOVGUIN: sales ta.aicteiaslakeia wicauileste soe ame 158
WCDINOLMVES sate sia co ccchelaiwiiiaiave visas Manes’ s 153
HiCHINOGYAMUS po. 1. vecisce srasins sk eees 156

PL ATVI opie reiece sin fe dorae Sie wi.@i2,e) 90:0 wa a’elee ne eee

220

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE.

arm DONE Za ss leristoielnici=iaceiasieinististeloiale/oir ateiece 195
Jnmyosteleel> eAaadaod co eooUsoUombeL oaD000 199
PEIN COPO sore einratelpfereteveislsteieVeisveteferetoe ttn vere a otets 157
Entomology..... ,--86, 132, 146, 161, 180, 184
ino tasi hi Ekaddanoadnead asdose seosvendod 5
VASHTAA 2 l-0ccists, saia(etoleei ss winis cleieeieieintets oie ioe 137
BGENNIGIOR Ys catais totes cioie helen ciaiete sieeieetene 67, 95
Lote R A TUT SSG domo oAeGOOS doo vasoSodae AY
a POSLUAUD sis olen sneteramietesciet= 31

oe FOTOLICOPNAB Jeo \ercivicisieleleler ines 31

st PUNCUACA cocina ec leale tae ett ati 31

ss Stuartina, var. longifolia... 31

sf WIDITVALIS 5015) /< oem eatnieiaeie we 32

ee GGA DA Laie ier sietantewietets) ciate 32

es BUDSUS wojetemerteiele (elsteleeetstereiele. akc 32

se PONTOCR yi cmisre rete teioinietetaiet sts 32, 37

se LEDER OB Bie ere reietslote ele eleleiatnlole ints) nla 32

os RTL CTASHALE so ele) a caiclel sialelatecelate 32

aa uncinata .... . 32

ge hemastoma.............000. 32

Bs Biel a tale catateye sietalou cis exe's ele 32

Ke COVIACE Raia nsisisleleleiicleisiasielois ss 32

KS WACIALS Re laielslalsielsis/cesloicieisiele 32, 35

cs BVVY SORIA. patejnisiele =\s re.0/ 32, 36

ae Eugenioides.............. 33, 37

as BPHCIULIS Rogier ineinatee eles sle7ei= 33

ee TRULLCCLORMIN a aleisevisieiciclelsicis oie 33

He Bali gna isc cicioy eiaslersielsleiniseicie 33

ae ITS CHUL AUB alae pintclclclaicialniataleiaic/evele 33

us. RVANUS AGH oie cinin/iedimieiaialoieinisicalajsiaen se

“s ODEWUSIMOLG <\</:.'s ors ralelstetsisisic 33

“ ple Ss RS oeanoodas0as0 Ieee 33

se ACINENOIGEH Sac cies cleleieiele class 33

CS DiCOLON ociiea/sloteinis mats ey sisieeceis 33

a HEMP NL OTs ieiveneisteisiee clo ee 33

uy NOTA OLN Bia siatslalole tela arealeln|asarel= 34

as GIUVOETSILOLS seen eeieiete nies crate 34

Ke polyanthemos........... .. 34

a PuUlVErtilenta si cmc) fei cleielsiels 34

we CIMIGLO Ma ssteyecie ia rieeieinieeeteys aioe oA

ss MQ be Pe Gees osinetigooaeoaces a: 34

cd TODUSGA sicictsheiaia/nieieivisislenieisttete 34

G. botryoides soe cmietsiciaei esi 34, 36

ss POSIMITOrAL aie ciee cidareisineciers 34

ee COLVIN DORA scien x sisi eles aide scie 34

ce EXLINIB a iaieleveto oiele cleo ee nieierere 35

“ ptricta..... Beis

es UVES ecetetetelelaleleversiersielernte cle eiats 35

a MUTI Ha ssngs, adisacuaa sade 35

ae Euproseopinus.............. 89

<s Tea bWare We andoosppasoGes 35

ad PANNICULACA th oisie/~ alee sleee aie 35

ae CETODIAN veces neece 35

as piderophloiatnia. sce tence 35

ae melanophloia............... 35

aa Capitellanccciicselsiciele + aaeieeee 35

PAGE.

Eucalyptus macrorhyncha.............. 35
ce rach ypPOd asec sete ccinctsieimsie 36

KS calophy lla iicn . oteieiielsie.e'> 36

es COTTUER sismietote nisi slotsicteloiel= siclelore 36

es CLODNA esters eeieisieclsielie POGOe ks

a Leptophlebascevipiesis lesicsetalrets 37

Kt trachyphloia,... 22. -.-s..05 3T

ay drepanph yllas. -ciee<ciscie a 37

as Doratoxylon®. oo. ssisciss.sjaance 3T

fs GUNN shiiesiisleciice cneserse 37

bu EY dogbel yee nem ace de sccarooye 3T

we RUGEUTS ONAL sce vereinie mie staal ee ctetats 37

CH COCCILENAS.\c\srvcieiistercisie cere eis 37

S VELIUCOS A eieicrcte rc lateleistetsrsieioteyatate 37

es LENCOXYLON pis ciceie sie ets oie eee 3T

s BIGETOXVLON oy secs cenelets 37

ce PHOOMICER Ss). en cnn. Sapadaads 37

sg Dlatyphylla cscs cei ceee erie 37

<r LERBOLATIS) [osc sleivciecle le slsine mieten LOU

ES CLEA Gaemomiosccmcciaonaoncca ve
IBN OS crocs e scie ccciicecioeetiee eine 38, 142
Bly-catcher........-+cerce afeiaeretelsiate 192, 198
iby bral so oa nbageenuacoscuonbO dCs 19 27
(Crlefoletee tn anaqdd- soeoadooddaneaasnasne 200
GREOTORY wierstclors ate iaterciseieretetelotare rs 28, 38, 123, 170
GOOCH y PIB ccte can-eieiielloaislaleteeietnie a . 193
Glacierdinne sie cease ene eee 38, 123, 170
Glyptostomae).c<jjs0c5scie1ss%' sisenje asia 20
Gola tin chee rctactatc. ctor ciclo’ sic lojelerctereierniets 194
(ova foley ws Meri Boa het econ duro dOCoagog oe 182
GTOSDGAK or erie everclear ernieiecicrm a isielstere 27, 194
Sethe Se Ge SR oso osnoanaasdoupu tds30 197
Gum TreeGrayicicurccicctr sellin ctelmesies 31
ee 124210 Sr eee eee? 6 ape oe I 31

Us LAUT anAcgnaod oo HodeO ane 31

es WIOOGEG ter ieicwie sas loiniare ier epaiorelate 31

ss EG CROT Yi ayes eteictaiofeinloie teletsinisi ale 31

Bs Leather Jacket.............. 31

US MANU Be Gadasee OopboOoS. DooCs 31

‘s DTOOPIN Geese) wjis'olpetsisiainiare 32

0. WANNA sescinisin siete ici ieiieleiomak 32

se Chapparalyn .cintmicasi-\=ii=) see se 32

se BO tte jecierrins versfeicierieiiets 32

a Mountain White............ 32

ae MUSA Sie arcine cteresetatsietelatetetelsialatale 32

ss RIVED HW HILGH. cctersietelevelstaotersie 32

a Mountain Blue.............. 33

ae Mountain Ash: ....; <\.../ic1scvictes 33

ac IM@RSMALES<(cia1s ncleisianinateetite 33

Ks PB ITRCK DUGG oh <ic/sis/atsis sists imersiente 33

ce White Mahogany............ 33

=e ATONVBANKC., icp i-slsaies ce wise stem 33

an WOOLY OTEEraccitaisleris's os eisieters 34

a iby fesc en Neyo pose asnindo: aac 34

b
.
;
|

GENERAL INDEX.

Gum Tree, Poplar-leaved.............++ 34
§ 10.) CESAR OAD UEOOOO COCO: 34

ys IQOG WOO s <cicle: si blese « cee ataigte 35

re Red Flowering..... .....-.-- 35

o fron Bark, Black...» <2 es/s 35

Se oC WHOS sncieistaverorate 35

s¢ Siringy Barks. ce accnoccd 1 35

ey Silver-leaved.: .6..0¢ 600 sehen 35

a Almond.-leaved.............- 35

a6 Narrow-leaved.......- ..--- 37
Gundlachia Californica,.........6...++- 26
Harporhynchue .........ccscesscececace 192
DEES WES site oacte ce plo ecreieicicisiaieibielesiaterteraimia ers 202
PI GUIGGWING siarn eral ale aiaicie slertolere aiarctereisiarareynt 135
ER Ue eeih se cte(epe stk snc’ <'aiolals aiepavelalernarersto 12, 185
SES ATNONLOSR sc acc cicicicie sisiaieinic cin slatsiarete 16
SSETCELCU LEGG piorcis coax siaistelvie nis aleleitel= 16

SPER ETOBG « craiaiiwre ta pas wluleiaisiace'sleleiela sere 16

SEM ODTECL CTL LAUW sciatic s ulare) sjelaiaieintcra\n’alataiaiaye 17

SPM PISOLICL CRD futurama nisciasipaters siaaeiarete ia 17

£45) MOYMONUM sy «c's c Sex aeieidarseisienie.c's 18

a6) ETAGHU eo cies cass canescens aeeetlss 19

BOP TIC@LIR cer crates crcis a alelalcrcineparertistete aces 19

RE UTAL HIN Ab eaisie'e ices eile ots anlaeele.sidte ko
S60 SUNGW DEFY ANI: «°c sisicisieinisen siaseicvles 20

§¢ TOWNDSENGIADS « wscccccwwece scence 21
SUEY CHOPUOEA tc ss cin a (ale a'aidiale oes) 21

KSU RMA GHOLEUAT a ata's\eecctoisinrs siete sot =e ey

Se eee CO ITITPNIUATNG -iola's ule! cla'elecsiele sie stolen = 22
SCRIP EOPEI ATG a's, 5\010°0 co du oa/s aiclalnio else 22

ROM PERCE TIC oy <isversierelsisiagicctaldinamaus/etmers 6 23

Meee SNEVERLOLI A) cin cle aie’ bicic'eaaleidicid’e eccine «.< 23

FE PAUPET. 0. cece cc vccecnccesscesaes 23

SEE THGOLALS viel siuletcicc eYe,0 Sadana cle atelslats 23

SCOOP ROMILAN A ces accerac'e caclelelueiirnin asics emoe
EPEC CHET & crea vin ool wielsieivieiere aiatatstelers er 23

SSIs WV OM PII ate ceieia x0) ofatsl orn chataleis Giwicteleave 23

Se EI TELAFIGEL ccs aroluis «mt aialsiele/alatela’s e/atet= e 23
Helminthophaga .........ccerceeeeccee 193
ROWIATIN: 62s cctena tae eisisen iaalees Ser Oren oo
Heterocentrotas............ sieht watasseatne 153
ED Gaeta «inc ucieleiecieldiaiviele deislelclelsleaelaaisiacto 5
Hippone........-. Jeineieies eletala sl araineicclae 155
PED TUNING ora jcssip'e/erv sie, e = e/e oitlainain'sintetelainiereeta 200
AVAIL Bree cise ince icinie's ee selate/aietiacie\alalet=isismieaes
e BY DOLOR cn nacaiciniccesiaicininssiot(sainten oe
Hydrobia Californica.................-. 26
Hydrography........c+essccssccrees 81, 167
Hyloicus.........--ss.eee brfosgennacios 93
Tee-pellets...... 2 22ccencecese J odeebades 80
Icthyology ........sescceeee wales a's 38, 142
Insectivorous plant...... Maatancesae de LOL

PAGE

DADAM: Hoe sicacisatic ste ole/sv pans wees Manone 28
SBLTAN aca waie Aaicaeleate tw eteave duricieemucetan 31
DRY Hes cciewdssacaenns sn centers sewer von 198
RAMI ye areiviatelaterte aie sevaie aiasale/raiuiale eiatemee tae 35
SUEY oh C0 6 Oe PASI PE ER ICICL TEED Cae eps 156
BNid! BEM Bie om wis cias\« «a vislalalsin'astoteiers 12, 14
Hepidopterai::ss.2e Scr vese 86, 132, 146, 184
WGDROCEOTUS: He vices atele’o cic cists sislcleiaislal cite ie 13
EA CRSMRTACE s/s x is'sos celele eres os emt aeteintalsiets 176
SPU MANUATL tetwiey ei cicieajarsie keis’e oft erera(o) jemenea® 140, 144
imax HewstOnl ac. + scisdeccens tecwerte 25
Limnophysa Binneyi............-.++0+- 26
NSE RETA Sevess<(cisloveye= sisieinia'elcialeielolslsleimia(olsteis 3
CAV Con ete “tn ciclo. u eivic sc: erels op leverotaiarere (ol Minaletite 3
PAONIESTINA UE <,c\clolsice ait « a cleee's te pipiomisiniy aimtalale 158
TOPHOVMANIEH, 3/510 s/e1ec's cies sales alu elas weetetels 192
EACTODTORSIDY a \cicicieic cls occ aleeivsiae e's 0 aletetd 87
ERGO PIORE: sis\eia's,c cist c wlnivecacisieuines ecwie 89
Macrocyclis.......... SCoL acon asetisnticls 23
EAR EU EW a iciclclcicieicieisinicecciceiaclaitnaeialare 3
WER HORUL GI oe al elele «(oia/a's)«) «'sintersie’s Ws (eieTareiatela 92
MI REIG O65) «))s0.= aie:516 Caleistne elels) stele (al wise late 198
Mala an ys WiItltGy 2. cts <lnc'> e oleisia's olaleiate 34
O. UG Cireesteentale(e satnicte sicits ssa 34

Ss WMONGStr pace ss ciecivaccre ectiesine 34

« UUUAIIN EN) a'et aici syeiateaveraicie'sisiaintr 34

u TBSAREATO Ghee se cialbic wicisis «aie lente 34

WEA IICRACRE ce cimctercieis aia/a cis (einicleisias's.s.e's cto 182
MAT OGi ais opt orstectaieeis eins s!aieisieele’ < /cressinjaicve 158
ME GITCLOPUNE Ass saieate wel aicusisisioieien ci wsciserce 133
RT Uh 33 sob e REISE SOBRE aoe eee pee: 157
WEGREROV Pelee ia 6 i1e/ cle 's mee ate s.:016. vie: a aww evar 20
WECE POM meee etal tiaieicis tic t see s.0.0 elc\e's\e o0.0 aie 49
_ Migrations, Human... ....... aelalsane erate 67
UB EEMVIERCI ch ieeh ls s,s cis ie vierctele cielvicials @ sees ne
TTL OP yatorercietale ain ctaisicleisieinielojsie, oleleiels) s.0%8 150
WMG DINAS@B eore o's's,0!d ts 00.5 (a1eteisicjajafola,a's 12, 14, 185
Mountains, Sierra Nevada...... 88, 123, 170
Museum Donations............---+55 3, 5

27, 49, 66, 78, 79, 123, 131, 142, 145, 149
159, 160, 166, 179, 183, 187, 188, 189, 205

MEVlOdICtCS ia. . osc te ceneeveseunece sin 193
IN ORI ALONG sa \0's'< 6 5 oicieisistw oaranaiasiclic rate 205
(8) 0k C5 HS GAC DOO ORUCIOCIID COORG JOO 203
Ocean Deptns....< cesses ence) sacle duces 29
QTICET HISTO ne « x cle cinle.cictulels lois ia 'e\e(swialalels 2
Officers’ Reports. ... ccc ences cece cnen 1
OriglesGoldents c= ciscevicn aie ons) ameter 27
Oriolus ......... Raseaate "Seorceeoseoscse 2!

222

PAGE.
Ornithology,....... Solaleisletava ae srerelavats 160, 189
LEY RK caie Ns steve te le atolols'iniei aveje¥etelars Malate ctr eareee 202
OWISi sci cki sk sas 26 shaserarelntecmeaciente 201
ORV ITODIB aerc.ciscdoivisie wn cic cin erecelere stare lel Melee 4
PATECIA LOS a aKe's sio{oyainiele emleteloivinete seiseileshs 27
PABSETCUIUG! i.1-\ts1s/ ds wciciicie cla stetetsamterenetele 195
PPBtILass i icincun ves bis biss «cldicisiin s ene 23
WPOLAIK Fb cis RS Sires, x icictwrasieeetgt cece ieioe 27
WPOtKLOStICH AL. 2 .st< ws ve ae ccjerieisniehenion ee 157
ALAM PEMUG) sia cisiaciaoie/«-s1e)e 01 averayNoertetarsye: ae 91
PPB YTMOXCLA 456 criomistore nels s cep eieemerntee 180
PU CAH Ss os Ho islolaind Aadays ciel alae nettete eae 198
PACUS) 5 Scrcvalereisin's'c.0.c's aicreemca cl steht ee os 200
DiniCOl ass raver. ge cyeitetae sec aeemetee et 194
ME ATNUIS) cint hava, dhaieistat eevee corse Nun a graven /atetete' ve 27
Pitcher= plant nas sacs eisiiteeisioe sar eearee 161
POTSONG i cuss cris, perarclethintare ovare, eer ete eels 3
POUT OP ULL roses ists cca wish asisiatcloreists ettey= aietsze et ove 192
Pomatiopsis intermedia...............- 26
PONT OW Sy Gace ciselleter ete lessee ia oe aoe 3
IPOD Sai ce aise einem nes wrelsin'e Wels ee Giese ine 3
PPTOSEMPID UB sonics ete sine wees ere tole nea 89, 90
PUN CHUM PY PMWM ere wv cie i wore «cle sw \niele 24
IPAL Pies eiaie eee eieae cis sstsinieers cisietas cis 13
AVP AIST B cis wy ayaie selves eis onl set es Siete iorareie 27s 147
AUT ES SE re, COS Sa OS e eee Gere bl ee Cr 202
HUATELO AW CO's criersrsrs01s(visviafe.s\ssyeldetste'e mic fals 3
FREUMeriGraperic.c nc wcls cldicis « siselsfelalsleiets 182
RLEpOris, OMiCers coc sca. lacie eiactesteepare 1
ERD COP YES cleicis licielciciztoct asic isin Pefemmntels 158
UORCOGLILE” | ve teiikcieaet iwtots eserctercioveneelaeennd 150
PRALTION, ROBE e cenars ters icss store's oie wis deers seaaieioee 200
IAAT arerave, croro/siajn'scy ale ere neiceiar atic Miva ciate 142
Balin etes) si. 2ilitiacieisic ces wleierateln vlolere tle uctete 192
DBLACENIACEBD sein) edows cise ce nowmmeeeae 161
SCUROMITA RLS cio awisteleehiciale: lnc aslo ee 156
Senna Digdaer kre 4 foe aedasecde oultouis 3
refer qt: €\ ACEP) ASME IER tea SeanehnP eres ce 5
HHnelkes Tandy) ¥ oho siges we ences BV ara tf
Sierra Nevada Mts.............. 38, 123, 170
Nmerinthinis se oss otoceneen ce ceeanioes 91

GENERAL INDEX.

PAGE

BS DATLOWSB cite reloiclafate alec sisters oraeineincieh stoerere 190
SS PALANEIAiey eeele areiafeie ote oiclcs otek isieiote ets 158
sya URIs FOUTS OA BARK Are iotiaton ac de cticc 92
Sphinx yess as acsieee ee chim ciate etneiee ala waite 93
Bellas case tetraenete is etticva ltrs ctevesipiiienie 200
BEYER boys carne eerie a elelsiereieteieletocrn wiareneinrers 201
Strongylocentrotus ................... 154
Succinea lineata as. Aheec aces sists «c ciete obs » 24
«Ss STLinnand yates severe cis aiersle 24
SUPVEYINE...s/ face ele ese een ae a eoers © 81, 167
Survey, Geological S10. ccecccticevircisieeene 206
Temperature, Sub-marine.............. 29
MepHYOSTA a: tees ciecurs. $70; 00a nlossiereymercieapievetoieye 4
PPBTABNELS. a rrissiskieieveiaisie peice tele eee ote 192
EPRYUBHEB) ci) < bie 's are'eioreyare eisyeveteis mickey salar eletete 190
TBH TV OCHOTUB es Satara careers eretara) cierto teteisions 192
EB VEMIOTISE a's 50a 0)010s0l0: </c d/ac «ce saretostarehe afenranes 192
MOPOSTAPHYiesiicinits veecleaise crete 28, 38, 123
WOKOPNCUBEEB oe sis cee dm ncei eee enlaere 155
Pransitiof VenUGis65 6 0.ccis an waedta slew 9
SD EGR ei Ssrata rs fle ns aia a rare jai ie alata ryeqeieteiotartvaniere 30
Trip lechinidewe ses scidsis cies we blenaorttee 155
Troplodytesse Sis.25 se cee cece oaecbee es 192
PRNOUW G3 «5/5 ccereinnateratels fesereiele oe slein tderdic sevaeieie 142
MUN GAR 25:0 sa oiciciele.e aie c lereiarefelewe sai mtn ate 190
SVRTL ACUI ire vols -a ice. c's «re apap niece 150
WADIOCSSBS Ae wc ceieictetieis oi este simmoehties Poke ©.
VENUS) “RrAnNGit Of 2. .c cana esiages) eee 9
Vat CIA, cee aa 2c. wasstheeiens 180, 182
WAKGOBYL VA dae siee = Aceinp mie arose cioeee eon 194
Vitality of tuand' Shells, 3.5.22 i212 bc. 0 185
WAP BLONT soi fece.cioies .nieissalatouceaees wee ere 193
Waswineten -fitcope eer cee manele hee 194
WANE GOTEDOS "foie, ci01 wlesverss MR ee eae 182
Woodpeckers . aa: pce<ccsse enenaseeeas 200
Wrecks; Japaneses... ocr. naitentee cecne 50
WIENS Oe Giclorsis ois wy tans Gere nee es Maes 192
Warren oie, ce lee pero e win ioleshye aetna eee 31
WO SOMES Sco cape.soisisie tele ioe oc nee: 80

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